Although leopards are silent most of the time, they may give a hoarse, rasping cough at repeated intervals to advertise their presence to conspecifics. Males use this unique call to announce territorial boundaries. If another leopard is in the vicinity, it may answer with a similar vocalization and continue vocalizing as it exits the area. Males also grunt at each other and females call to potential mates when in estrous. Some leopards may purr while feeding.
Communication Channels: tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Other Communication Modes: pheromones ; scent marks
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Leopards are declining in parts of their geographic range due to habitat loss and fragmentation, and hunting for trade and pest control. As a result, leopards are listed as "near threatened" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Leopards appear to show some resistance to minor habitat disturbances and are relatively tolerant of humans. Currently, leopards are protected throughout most of their range in west Asia; however, populations in this part of their range are too small to maintain stable growth. Although habitat reserves and national parks exist throughout their geographic range in Africa, a majority of leopards live outside these protected areas. Although leopards are the most populous of the "great cats", 5 of 9 subspecies are listed as endangered or critically endangered.
US Federal List: endangered
CITES: appendix i
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: near threatened
When natural prey abundances are low, leopards have been known to kill livestock. Injured or sickly leopards have been known to hunt humans as easy prey.
Negative Impacts: injures humans (bites or stings)
Leopards can be seen in National Parks throughout Asia and Africa. They help control baboon populations and disperse seeds that stick to their fur. Chiefs and warriors from tribal cultures throughout the leopard's geographic range wear their fur as a symbol of honor and courage. Tribal medicine men and women suggest leopard skins as a remedy for bad omens. Leopards are often captured for pet trade and are targeted by trophy hunters as well.
Positive Impacts: pet trade ; body parts are source of valuable material; ecotourism
Leopards compete for food with lions (Panthera leo), tigers (Panthera tigris), spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), and African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus). To avoid attacks from potential predators, leopards tend to hunt at different times of the day and avoid areas where potential predators are most populous. When competition for larger prey items is high, leopards prey on smaller animals, which reduces interspecific competition. Leopards are host to many common felid parasites, including lung flukes (Paragominus westermani), flat worms (Pseudophyllidea), spirurian nematodes (Spiruroidea), hookworms (Ancylostomatidae), lung worms (Aelurostrongylus), intestinal and hepatic parasites (Capillaria), and parasitic protozoa (Sarcocystis).
Commensal/Parasitic Species:
Leopards are ambush predators, pouncing on their prey before it chance to react. They approach potential prey by crouching low to the ground, getting as close as 3 to 10 m to prey before pouncing. Leopards are not likely to chase prey after the first pounce. Once a prey item is captured, they immediately break the prey's neck, causing paralysis. After breaking the prey's neck, leopards asphyxiate them and carry the carcass to a secluded feeding location, typically in a nearby tree. They may also cover prey carcasses in leaves and soil. Their tremendous strength allows them to tackle prey up to 10 times their own weight.
Leopards generally prey upon mid-sized ungulates, which includes small antelopes (Bovidae), gazelles (Gazella), deer (Cervidae), pigs (Sus), primates (Primates) and domestic livestock. They are opportunistic carnivores and eat birds (Aves), reptiles (Reptilia), rodents (Rodentia), arthropods (Arthropoda), and carrion when available. Leopards prefer prey that weigh between 10 and 40 kg. They are also known to scavenge from cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus), solitary hyenas (Hyaenidae), and smaller carnivores as well. They are known to cache food and may continue hunting despite having multiple carcasses already cached.
Animal Foods: birds; mammals; reptiles; fish; carrion ; insects
Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food
Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates)
There are nine subspecies of Panthera pardus, which are distributed as follows: Panthera pardus pardus is in Africa; Panthera pardus nimr, Arabia; Panthera pardus saxicolor, Central Asia; Panthera pardus melas, Java; Panthera pardus kotiya, Sri Lanka; Panthera pardus fusca, the Indian sub-continent; Panthera pardus delacourii, southeast Asia into southern China; Panthera pardus japonensis, northern China; and Panthera pardus orientalis, far east Russia, on the Korean peninsula and in north-eastern China.
Biogeographic Regions: palearctic (Native ); oriental (Native ); ethiopian (Native )
Leopards inhabit a variety of terrain. They are most populous in mesic woodlands, grassland savannas, and forests. They also occupy mountainous, scrub, and desert habitats. They favor trees throughout their entire geographic distribution, and have been recorded at 5638 meters on Mt. Kilimanjaro.
Range elevation: 5638 m (high) m.
Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; forest ; rainforest ; scrub forest ; mountains
In captivity, leopards can live to be 21 to 23 years old, with the oldest known individual being 27 years old. Wild leopards may live to be 10 to 12 years old, with the oldest known individual being 17 years old. Survival rates for cubs range from 41% to 50%.
Range lifespan
Status: wild: 17 (high) years.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 27 (high) years.
Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 10 to 12 years.
Typical lifespan
Status: captivity: 21 to 23 years.
Body size and color patterns of leopards varies geographically and probably reflects adaptations to particular habitats. Leopards have short legs relative to their long body. They have a broad head, and their massive skull allows for powerful jaw muscles. The leopard's scapula has specialized attachment sites for climbing muscles. They have small round ears, long whiskers extending from dark spots on the upper lip, and long whiskers in their eyebrows that protect their eyes while moving through dense vegetation. Their coat ranges from tawny or light yellow in warm, dry habitats to reddish-orange in dense forests. Subspecies are distinguished according to unique pelage characteristics. Their body is covered with black rosettes, which are circular in East Africa and square in South Africa. They have solid black spots on their chest, feet, and face and rings on their tail. Cubs have a smoky gray coat and their rosettes are not yet distinct. Each individual has a unique coat, which can be used for identification. Black panthers, which are most populous in humid forests, are leopards with recessive melanistic genes. Savannah and woodland leopards tend to be relatively large while mountain and desert leopards tend to be relatively small. Leopards are sexually dimorphic as males tend to be larger than females. Females range in body mass from 17 to 58 kg and in length from 1.7 to 1.9 m. Males range in mass from 31 to 65 kg and in length from 1.6 to 2.3 m.
Range mass: 17 to 65 kg.
Range length: 1.6 to 2.3 m.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger
Humans are the primary predator of leopards. Leopards are hunted as trophy animals for their fur, and retaliatory killings by farmers protecting their livestock are not uncommon. Lions (Panthera leo), tigers (Panthera tigris), spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta), and African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) prey upon leopard cubs and are capable of killing adult leopards. Typically, when an adult is killed it is due to a territorial confrontation. Many of the characteristics that make leopards great predators also serve as excellent predator defense mechanisms. For example, a leopard's spots allows them to travel inconspicuously and avoid detection.
Known Predators:
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
Leopards are promiscuous, as both males and females have multiple mates. Females attract potential mates by excreting pheromones in their urine. Females initiate mating by walking back and forth in front of a male and brushing up against him or swatting him with her tail. The male then mounts the female while frequently biting her nape. Copulation last an average of three seconds with six minute intervals between each copulation bout. A single breeding pair may copulate up to 100 times per day for several days, during which time they share food resources.
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
The reproductive season is year-round but peaks during the rainy season in May. In China and southern Siberia, leopards mainly breed in January and February. Females are in estrus for 7 days and have a 46 day long cycle. Gestation last 96 days and females usually give birth once every 15 to 24 months. Typically, females stop reproducing around 8.5 years old.
Breeding interval: Leopards breed every 15 to 24 months
Breeding season: Leopards breed year-round, with a peak during the rainy season
Range number of offspring: 2 to 3.
Average gestation period: 96 days.
Average weaning age: 3 months.
Range time to independence: 13 to 18 months.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2.5 years.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous
Average birth mass: 550 g.
Average gestation period: 97 days.
Average number of offspring: 2.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male: 771 days.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 937 days.
Leopard cubs weigh less than 1 kg at birth, and their eyes remain closed for the first week. Mothers leave their cubs in the protection of dense bush, rock clefts, or hollow tree trunks for up to 36 hours while hunting and feeding. They move den sites frequently, which helps prevent cubs from falling prey to lions and other predators. Cubs learn to walk at 2 weeks of age and regularly leave the den at 6 to 8 weeks old, around which time they begin to eat solid food. Mothers share less than a third of their food with their cubs. Cubs are completely weaned by 3 months old and independent at just under 20 months old. Often, siblings maintain contact during the early years of independence. Territories are flexible and young may linger in their natal area.
Parental Investment: altricial ; female parental care ; pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); extended period of juvenile learning
