The current body of research details many accounts of western rattlesnake
plantain's recovery after fire.
Stickney [89,90] lists western rattlesnake plantain as a "nonsurvivor" after a
high-severity wildfire in a western larch-Douglas-fir forest in northwestern
Montana. Western rattlesnake plantain, characteristic of nearby unburned areas, was not observed on burned
sites after the high-severity Tillamook wildfires in Douglas-fir, western
hemlock, and western redcedar forests in northwestern Oregon. The fires burned
in 1933, 1939, and again in 1945. Data were recorded during the summers of 1955
and 1956 [72]. A mixed-severity wildfire in a Douglas-fir forest of eastern
Washington reduced western rattlesnake plantain percent cover to 0%. Before the
fire the percent cover was 1% [47]. Halpern and Spies [45] reported that
populations of western rattlesnake plantain among Douglas-fir forests of the
H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest, Oregon, were eliminated from all soil disturbance classes
including disturbed but unburned, lightly burned, and heavily burned.
Western rattlesnake plantain declined following clearcutting, clearcutting with slash treatments, and
wildfire in a subalpine fir/beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax)
habitat type in west-central Montana. Slash treatments resulting in western rattlesnake plantain decreases
were broadcast burning of logging slash and
pile burning following mechanical scarification [10]. Frequency of
western rattlesnake plantain decreased in Douglas-fir and tanoak communities after logging,
and frequency continued to decrease to 0% after the high-severity Biscuit Fire in
southwestern Oregon [22]. On subalpine fir sites in northwestern Montana, western
rattlesnake plantain was present
before disturbance (logging/slash piling/broadcast burning) and not present in the
1st 8 successional years [88]. According to Marcum [66],
western rattlesnake plantain is a "retreater" in response to
clearcutting and site treatment (scarification and slash burning).
Western rattlesnake plantain
was not present for 17 years after these disturbances [66].
After the Waterfalls Canyon Fire in Grand Teton National Park, the mean
frequency of western rattlesnake plantain in the 1st growing season was 10% on unburned
sites, 3% on moderately burned sites, and 0% on severely burned sites [16].
A prescribed fire on mixed-conifer study sites on the North Rim of Grand Canyon
National Park, northern Arizona, escaped and burned with greater severity than
expected. Western rattlesnake plantain frequency decreased
significantly (p=0.001) on burned sites (33%) vs. unburned
sites (83%) [51].
In a greenhouse study, different disturbances were initiated on soil blocks
(dug from the western hemlock zone of the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest) to
determine the response of buried propagules to disturbances. Treatments included
0 to 3 combinations of removing shade, churning the soil, burning dry litter on top of the soil for
~30 seconds, and an undisturbed control. Three western
rattlesnake plantain sprouts were recorded on
the undisturbed plots, and 1 sprout was recorded on the plot that was
shaded/churned/burned. No sprouts were observed on any other
treatments: full sun/intact/unburned, shade/intact/burned,
shade/churned/unburned, sun/intact/burned, sun/churned/unburned, and
sun/churned/burned [53].
Hamilton's Research Paper
(Hamilton 2006b)
provides further information on prescribed fire and postfire response of plant
species including western rattlesnake plantain.
This description provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology, and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available [30,41,42,49,50,81,85,100].
Western rattlesnake plantain is a native perennial, evergreen forb arising from short creeping rhizomes with fibrous roots. The persistent leaves are arranged in a basal rosette. They are thick, entire, and broadly lance-shaped, 1 to 4 inches (3-10 cm) long on winged petioles. The leaves have white mottling, especially along the mid-vein. There are 2 to 5 cauline leaves on the lower stem. The stems are stout and stiff, glandular pubescent, and have several small membranous bracts. They are 4 to 18 inches (10-45 cm) tall. The flowers are glandular pubescent and borne on a 1-sided or spiraled raceme up to 5 inches (12 cm) long. The petals and 1 of the sepals of the flower form a hood over the lip. There are as many as 30 flowers/raceme, but 10 to 15 are more common. The fruit is an erect, pubescent capsule about 0.4 inch (1 cm) long. Seeds are very small [1,27,49,64,76,77,96].
Fire adaptations: Western rattlesnake plantain is poorly adapted to fire. It has succulent rhizomes that grow mostly in the duff layer and are susceptible to fire damage [57,67].
FIRE REGIMES: The warm, moist grand fir, western hemlock, and western redcedar (Thuja plicata) habitat types of western Montana, where western rattlesnake plantain widely occurs, are diverse and highly productive stands with variable fire frequencies and severities. In the event of drought, heavy fuel loading makes the productive sites subject to high-severity, widespread fires where stands are replaced and sites revert back to pioneer species [36].
The drier Douglas-fir and white fir (Abies concolor) series of the eastern Cascade Range, where western rattlesnake plantain is known to occur, have shorter fire-return intervals and lower fire severities. The cooler, wetter grand fir series and some Douglas-fir series have longer fire-return intervals and higher fire severities [2].
The following table provides fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where western rattlesnake plantain is important. Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".
Community or Ecosystem Dominant Species Fire Return Interval Range (years) silver fir-Douglas-fir Abies amabilis-Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii >200 grand fir Abies grandis 35-200 [6] western larch Larix occidentalis 25-350 [7,18,29] Great Lakes spruce-fir Picea-Abies spp. 35 to >200 northeastern spruce-fir Picea-Abies spp. 35-200 [31] Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir Picea engelmannii-Abies lasiocarpa 35 to >200 blue spruce* Picea pungens 35-200 [6] Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine* Pinus contorta var. latifolia 25-340 [17,18,94] Sierra lodgepole pine* Pinus contorta var. murrayana 35-200 western white pine* Pinus monticola 50-200 Pacific ponderosa pine* Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa 1-47 [6] interior ponderosa pine* Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum 2-30 [6,13,65] Arizona pine Pinus ponderosa var. arizonica 2-15 [13,25,84] Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir* Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca 25-100 [6,8,9] coastal Douglas-fir* Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii 40-240 [6,68,80] California mixed evergreen Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii-Lithocarpus densiflorus-Arbutus menziesii <35 canyon live oak Quercus chrysolepis 6] redwood Sequoia sempervirens 5-200 [6,35,93] western redcedar-western hemlock Thuja plicata-Tsuga heterophylla >200 western hemlock-Sitka spruce Tsuga heterophylla-Picea sitchensis >200 mountain hemlock* Tsuga mertensiana 35 to >200 [6] *fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species reviewThe following table describes site characteristics for western rattlesnake plantain throughout its distribution.
Soils: In British Columbia, western rattlesnake plantain is an indicator of nitrogen-poor soils [61]. The most common soil moisture regime where western rattlesnake plantain occurs is "dry to fresh", and the soil nutrient regime is "very poor to medium" [60]. Western rattlesnake plantain is restricted to formerly glaciated areas in the East [37].
Western rattlesnake plantain can be an important component of the diets of white-tailed deer in northwestern Montana and woodland caribou in northeastern Washington [70,82]. White-tailed deer in the Swan Valley of northwestern Montana eat western rattlesnake plantain in winter [70]. Western rattlesnake plantain was 1 of 3 vascular plants that contributed most to the diets of woodland caribou in old-growth western redcedar-western hemlock stands in northeastern Washington [82].
Palatability/nutritional value: No information is available on this topic.
Cover value: No information is available on this topic.
In Oregon and Washington western rattlesnake plantain is dominant in
Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)/tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflora)-canyon live oak
(Quercus chrysolepis)/western rattlesnake plantain communities [38].
It is an indicator species for the wild
sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis) phase of the subalpine fir/queencup beadlily (Abies
lasiocarpa/Clintonia uniflora) habitat type in Montana [46].
In British Columbia, western rattlesnake plantain is a zonal plant indicator for:
Region I - Pacific coastal mesothermal forest; coastal western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla)
and coastal Douglas-fir zones
Region II - Pacific coastal subalpine forest; mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) zone
Region III - Canadian Cordilleran forest; interior western hemlock zone
Region V - Canadian Cordilleran subalpine forest; Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii)-subalpine fir zone [62]
Western rattlesnake plantain is dominant and/or constantly present in the
Douglas-fir-western hemlock and the transitional Pacific silver fir (Abies
amabilis)-western hemlock subzones of the Vancouver Forest District, British Columbia [59].
Western rattlesnake plantain also occurs with Alaska-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis),
Rocky Mountain maple (Acer glabrum), and Brewer's spruce (Picea breweriana) [32,60,95].
In a study done on the disturbance and recovery of trampled montane grasslands
and forests in Montana, western rattlesnake
plantain had a medium score
(200-400 passes/year required to reduce the frequency of occurrence) for
resistance. Short-term (end of the 1st trampling season and the start of the 2nd
trampling season) and long-term (end of the last trampling season and the end of
the recovery period three years later) resilience were both rated as low, with
<10% increase in relative cover. It was also reported that after short- (one season of
trampling and one 10-month recovery period) and long-term (three seasons of trampling
and 3 years of recovery) recovery periods, western rattlesnake plantain could only
tolerate light trampling (75-100 passes) and still recover [24].
Production of western rattlesnake plantain decreased on grazed vs. ungrazed
plots with 18.80 kg/ha and 34.10 kg/ha, respectively. The study area was
a Douglas-fir/ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceus) habitat
type on the University of Idaho Experimental Forest [102].
Ackerman [1] studied the 10-week flowering period of a large western rattlesnake plantain population located in a late-successional shore pine (Pinus contorta var. contorta) forest in northern California. The study period began August 8th, with anthesis. The flowers lasted approximately 2 weeks, and the capsules matured in 6 to 8 weeks. October 18th marked the end of the 10-week period. Flowering plants usually produced more new rhizomes than nonflowering plants; the mean number of new rhizomes was 1.74 for flowering plants and 0.46 for nonflowering plants [1]. Flowering rosettes deteriorate after blooming, and the rhizome tip dies back [1,23]. The loss is recovered since both flowering and nonflowering individuals produce new rhizome sprouts. Death of the rhizome tip releases buds along the axis of the rhizome from dormancy [23].
The following table provides flowering dates for western rattlesnake plantain throughout its distribution.
State/Region/Province Anthesis Period California July to August [71] Idaho July to August [76] Oregon and Washington July to September [48] Great Lakes States July to September [41,55] Pacific Northwest July to August [50] Ontario August to September [15]Western rattlesnake plantain regenerates from rhizomes and seeds [78].
Pollination: Bumble bees are the most common pollinators of western rattlesnake plantain. Halictid bees and syrphid flies were observed hovering near Goodyera spp. in northern Michigan. The insects sometimes landed on the flowers but were never seen bearing pollinia. The flowers of western rattlesnake plantain are protandrous, making self-pollination unlikely. Pollination occurs as the bees work their way from the bottom of the inflorescence to the top, removing pollinia from younger, upper flowers in the male stage, then flying to another inflorescence and depositing pollen on lower, older flowers in the female stage [1,55].
Some flowers in the orchid family are nectarless; however, western rattlesnake plantain flowers contain nectar. Nectar increases the chance for successful pollination because pollinators are encouraged to make repeat visits [1,73].
Breeding system: Barriers that restrict interbreeding among species are generally weak in Goodyera spp., making hybridization common in communities with multiple Goodyera species [55]. Western rattlesnake plantain does not self pollinate in the field, however, because the flowers are protandrous. Flowers of western rattlesnake plantain were self-compatible when hand pollinated in a greenhouse study, but showed decreased fertility [1].
Seed production: There are many seeds per capsule (i.e. 4,874 seeds from 10 capsules) [1].
Seed dispersal: The minute seeds of western rattlesnake plantain are wind dispersed [1,54].
Seed banking: A seed bank study in Oregon found no viable western rattlesnake plantain seed in soils where western rattlesnake plantain grew [53]. Further studies are needed on seed banking in western rattlesnake plantain.
Germination: In greenhouse experiments the optimum temperature for germination of western rattlesnake plantain seeds was 77 °F (25 °C) [5,19].
Seedling establishment/growth: Germinating Goodyera spp. seeds 1st produce slow-growing protocorms (cell masses that develop during orchid germination) that develop rhizoids (root-like structure lacking conductive tissues), and then develop scale-like leaves after several months of growth [92]. Greenhouse studies indicate that once a seed has germinated, it can take up to 1 year before leaves are present and 2.5 years before the plant is fully mature [5].
Vegetative regeneration: Western rattlesnake plantain rapidly regenerates from rhizomes [77].
Western rattlesnake plantain is characterized as a late-successional species, although it is present in some early seral stages [11,97].
On grand fir (Abies grandis) sites in western Montana, western rattlesnake plantain was prevalent in immature stands (<90 years old), where is showed 89% presence. It was most prevalent in old-growth stands (>150 years old), with 100% presence [4]. Western rattlesnake plantain is present in early stage development Douglas-fir and subalpine fir communities in western Montana, but is much more abundant in the mid- to late-seral stages [11].
Western rattlesnake plantain populations in the Pacific Northwest are most frequent among mature (80-195 years) and old-growth forests (200-730 years) in Douglas-fir/western hemlock zones. Populations were present, however, in young stands (35-79 years) [83]. Spies [87] and Bailey and others [12] also indicate that western rattlesnake plantain is found in young, mature, and old-growth Douglas-fir forests, although it is most frequent in old-growth forests. Halpern and Spies [45] observed that "peak development" of western rattlesnake plantain occurred in old-growth Douglas-fir.
Goodyera oblongifolia is a species of orchid known by the common names western rattlesnake plantain and giant rattlesnake plantain. It is native to much of North America, particularly in the mountains of the western United States and Canada, from Alaska to northern Mexico, as well as in the Great Lakes region, Maine, Quebec and the Canadian Maritime Provinces.[1][2][3]
Goodyera oblongifolia is most commonly found in mountain forests, often in the understory of conifers. This orchid forms a patch of broad lance-shaped to oval-shaped leaves at the ground, each 4 to 9 centimeters long. The leaf is dark green and in this species the midrib is streaked with white. The netlike veining on the leaf is also white, but not as thick as the midrib stripes. The plant produces an erect inflorescence up to about 30 centimeters tall. The top of the inflorescence has many white orchid flowers which may all face the same direction on the stalk, or be spirally arranged about it.[4][5][6]
The common name stems from the leaves, which have marks resembling snakeskin; the plant is also said to have been used to treat snakebites.[7]
Goodyera oblongifolia is a species of orchid known by the common names western rattlesnake plantain and giant rattlesnake plantain. It is native to much of North America, particularly in the mountains of the western United States and Canada, from Alaska to northern Mexico, as well as in the Great Lakes region, Maine, Quebec and the Canadian Maritime Provinces.
Goodyera oblongifolia is most commonly found in mountain forests, often in the understory of conifers. This orchid forms a patch of broad lance-shaped to oval-shaped leaves at the ground, each 4 to 9 centimeters long. The leaf is dark green and in this species the midrib is streaked with white. The netlike veining on the leaf is also white, but not as thick as the midrib stripes. The plant produces an erect inflorescence up to about 30 centimeters tall. The top of the inflorescence has many white orchid flowers which may all face the same direction on the stalk, or be spirally arranged about it.
The common name stems from the leaves, which have marks resembling snakeskin; the plant is also said to have been used to treat snakebites.
