Ghost Faced Bat

Mormoops megalophylla is a medium sized, reddish-brown to dark brown bat. They have large, rounded ears which join across the

forehead. Leaf-like appendages protrude from the chin. The tail projects dorsally from the uropatagium. No sexual dimorphism is noted; however, the basal metabolic rate is lower for females (Schmidly, 1991; The Mammals of Texas - Online Edition, 1994).

Range mass: 13 to 19 g.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Ghost-faced bats are typically found near desert shrub in caves, tunnels, mine shafts, and occasionally old buildings, especially where temperature and humidity are high (Schober & Grimmberger, 1997).

Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune

Mormoops megalophylla, the ghost-faced bat, is found as far north as southern Arizona and Texas. It is present throughout most of Mexico and populations continue south to northwestern Peru and northern Venezuela (Rezsutek & Cameron, 1993).

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); neotropical (Native )

Not much is known about the food habits of the ghost-faced bat.

Large-bodied moths and other large insects have been found in the stomachs and intestines of individuals (Rezsutek & Cameron, 1993; Schmidly, 1991).

Large amounts of guano (feces) are produced by the large populations in Mexico. Guano is commonly used by locals as a fertilizer (/Mormoops megalophylla/ webpage).

Ghost-faced bats also reduce the number of insect pests present in the areas in which they forage.

None known.

Temperate North American bats are now threatened by a fungal disease called “white-nose syndrome.” This disease has devastated eastern North American bat populations at hibernation sites since 2007. The fungus, Geomyces destructans, grows best in cold, humid conditions that are typical of many bat hibernacula. The fungus grows on, and in some cases invades, the bodies of hibernating bats and seems to result in disturbance from hibernation, causing a debilitating loss of important metabolic resources and mass deaths. Mortality rates at some hibernation sites have been as high as 90%. While there are currently no reports of Mormoops megalophylla mortalities as a result of white-nose syndrome, the disease continues to expand its range in North America.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Mormoops megalophylla have been found to roost in old buildings. Four specimen were discovered at Edinburg Junior High School in Edinburg, Texas. They were seen hanging from the rough plaster ceiling in a hallway. They supposedly entered the building at night through an open window (The Mammals of Texas - Online Edition).

Perception Channels: tactile ; chemical

There is a limited amount of data on the reproductive habits of ghost-faced bats. It is believed that mating begins in late December. One offspring is produced per year and is born between late May and early June. Lactating females have been found from

mid June until mid August (Schmidly, 1991).

Key Reproductive Features: gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual

Ghost-faced bats (Mormoops megalophylla), like most other bats, use echolocation to detect and locate prey. Echolocation relies on the production and emission of high-pitched sound waves that hit and bounce off nearby object (Wheeler 2006). The sound waves create differently sized and timed echoes depending on the size and proximity of nearby objects (Wheeler 2006). Researchers believe that the morphology of flaps, crevices, and hair helps with more efficient echolocation which inturn on the bat’s face provides an advantage in capturing insects (Wheeler 2006)

Ghost-faced bats affect the food chains in their habitat; areas where these bats live have significantly lower insect populations (Grindal and Brigham 1999). Moths and mosquitos account for a substantial portion of bats’ diets. Mormoops megallophylla emerge from their roosts individually to hunt at dusk (Rezsutek and Cameron 1993). They hunt in canyons and arroyos, also often foraging directly above water (Wheeler 2006). They can hunt for about seven hours straight before returning to their roosts. Mormoops megalophylla can consume their bodyweight in insects during a single hunt (Wheeler 2006). New mother bats must hunt and feed more frequently to maintain constant milk production for their offspring (Wheeler 2006). New mothers also roost in separate deeper caves to hide from predators and because deeper parts of the cave retain heat due to less ventilation (Rezsutek and Cameron 1993).

Generally insectivorous bats and moths have coevolved to detect the presence of the other. Each inner ear of the moth contains specialized neurons that are activated by ultrasonic frequencies that detect echolocation (Hill et.al 2004). Such detection gives the moths’ early warning of bat presence and allows them to attempt escape by fluttering their wings faster and going in the opposite direction (Hill et. al 2004). Moths can also detect the distance of the bat by the volume of the echolocation. A loud echo indicates the bat is nearby which drives moths to dive bomb towards the ground. Bats counter these moths’ behavior by approaching moths from behind; when the bat is directly behind the moth the moth is unable to detect its presence (Hill et. al 2004). We do not yet know if the coevolution of bat and moths are is true for the species M. megalophylla but this relationship has been observed in other nocturnal bat species.

For many bats the ability to hang upside-down in caves and other enclosed areas is a protection mechanism from any terrestrial predators such as snakes. Owls and other birds that hunt while the bats are hunting also prey on Mormoops megalophylla (Wheeler 2006).

Indirect predators of M. megalophylla include internal and external parasites that can cause a decrease in bat populations over time. Many populations of Mormoops megalophylla in Mexico have acquired rabies infections, which have resulted in declines in population size (Villa-R and Jimenez, 1960).

The size and composition of fission-fusion bat colonies constantly change. These colonies can mix different species, as well as different sexes (Willis, 2005). However, the ghost-faced bat, Mormoops megalophylla, rarely takes part in the fission-fusion social structure that commonly occurs, choosing instead to limit social interaction and colony structure to consist only of other ghost-faced bats (Texas Parks & Wildlife, n.d). Colonies of a single ghost-faced bat population can reach as high as half a million individuals (reported in Latin America) (Texas Parks & Wildlife, n.d), but colonies in Texas have only been reported to reach as high as 6,000 individuals (The Mammals of Texas - Online Edition, n.d). All ghost-faced bat populations maintain spatial isolation from other bat species’ colonies, and typically these bats prefer to maintain around 6 inches of distance from adjacent ghost-faced bats instead of roosting together (Texas Parks & Wildlife, n.d).

These bats seem to not have a preference as to their environment’s humidity, and they are typically found only in regions below a 3,000 m elevation (The Full Wiki, n.d). Their populations stretch from southern Texas and Arizona (though there have been few reports from Arizona) through Baja California (The Full Wiki, n.d). There are also reports of ghost-faced bats in central Mexico, eastern Honduras, and El Salvador (The Full Wiki, n.d). The range of these bats also spans the Caribbean coast of South America, covering Colombia, Venezuela, and Trinidad and Tobago (The Full Wiki, n.d). Despite this broad range, no record of ghost-faced bats exists in southern Central America: Nicaragua, Costa Rica, or Panama (The Full Wiki, n.d). Thus, there is a region of variance, where the species range has a geographical gap. Their range reaches as far south as the Pacific Coast regions of Colombia and Ecuador, and parts of northern Peru (Texas Parks & Wildlife, n.d). The current Texas population size is unknown, but estimates range from 100,000 to 1,000,000 individuals (Texas Parks & Wildlife, n.d).

Little is known about ghost-faced bat reproduction habits and behavior; however, evidence suggests that the interactions between male and female ghost-faced bats are rare and limited to mating. Colonies of ghost-faced bats segregate by sex, and the female colonies are further subdivided into nursing and non-nursing female populations (Bonaccorso, 1992). In fact, nursing females inhabit entirely separate caves from the male and non-nursing female colonies (Bonaccorso, 1992). Mating occurs sometime in early winter, and females tend to only produce one young per year, usually between April and June (Texas Parks & Wildlife, n.d). Females then lactate from mid June until mid August, but there is currently no evidence to suggest additional parental care (Texas Parks & Wildlife, n.d). The lifespan of ghost-faced bats is not confidently known; however, some estimates suggest that these bats live approximately 20 years in the wild (Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, 2015).

As adults, both sexes undergo molting cycles once a year in August, where they experience the growth of a new coat of fur (Constantine, 1958). The new coat attained through molting might be important for communication and sexual display, as only sexually mature bats undergo this process (E.E. Fraser, 2013). Molting may also help shed external parasites and restore the coat’s thermoregulatory capability.

This species of bat remains active year round (Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, 2015). There is no known migration by populations in the tropics, perhaps because of the year-round high temperature of these environments (Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, 2015). However, evidence suggests that there is seasonal migration in Texas populations, with ghost-faced bat populations moving from the Trans-Pecos Region to Frio Cave near Concan during the winter months (The Mammals of Texas - Online Edition, n.d). The number of ghost-faced bats has been slowly declining due to viral diseases and changes to the environment due to pesticides and pollution (Dávalos, 2008). However, the ghost-faced bat has no federal or state protection classification, but is listed as “uncommon” in Arizona by the Texas Parks & Wildlife Department (Texas Parks & Wildlife, n.d).

The Ghost-faced bat has a distinctive facial features. Many bat species have distinctive eyes, nose and mouth, that are not camouflaged by a sequence of flaps and folds. Although flaps of dermis are common in some species of bats they are not nearly as distinctive as M. megalophylla. Other bat species have minimal fur on their faces. The Mormoops megalophylla face consists of a series of folds and flaps intermingled with patches of fur in between their large ears. Their lips and chin are also composed of protruding flaps of skin that contain no fur. Mormoops megalophylla uses echolocation for directional guidance in avoiding predators and catching prey. Their unique facial patterns and folds within their ears help with the receiving and funneling of echoes from their surroundings or other organisms (Sheryl Smith-Rogers 2015). Many related bat species have a leaf-like nose but M. megalophylla has no structurally developed nose, only flaps with nostrils.

Like all mammals, M. megalophylla has fur. Fur present on their face and back but there are only tiny hairs on their membranous wings that help to determine speed and direction of air flow (Turner 2011). The fur on the ghost-faced bat varies in color from light dusty/brown to reddish brown. Their fur provides insulation and camouflage from predators (Hill 1984). From June to September M. megalophylla sheds and replaces its fur. The molt begins on the dorsal side, spreading across the back, eventually reaching the ventral side, and meeting at the chin (Smith 1972).

Like all bats, the wing bones of M. megalophylla are homologous with hand bones in other tetrapods (Haviland 2005). The wing consists of five digits on each hand, four fingers and one thumb with a claw. A brown translucent, epidermal membrane spreads across the digits, creating the wings.

Like most bats (Howell and Pylka 1997), M. megalophylla hang upside down while sleeping during the day (Rezsutek and Cameron 1993). To facilitate such behavior, many bat have hind limbs with knees that face backwards (Wheeler 2006).

Insect eating bats do not need large, visually acute eyes because they mainly rely on their large ears for movement (Ryckegham 1998). Consistent with this, the eyes of the ghost-faced bat are relatively small. Ghost-faced bat eyes are located adjacent to the curvature of each pinnae (outer-ear), there is variation in placement but tend to be much further apart and near the ear. Though the eyes aren’t relied on too heavily, there are still used for depth perception during flight (Wheeler 2006).

Large ears are common amongst bat species because they enhance their echolocation ability used for catching prey, avoiding predators and for general directional guidance (Ryckegham 1998). Insect eating bats need teeth to help crush and digest insects. Mormoops megalophylla have a total of 34 teeth that are often discolored and more brittle due to dentinogenesis imperfecta (Rezsutek and Cameron 1993).

The Ghost-faced bat, Mormoops megalophylla is a leaf-chinned bat of the family Moormoopidae. It roosts in caves and similar structures in colonies of various sizes, from a few individuals to a few thousand (IUCN Redlist). A singular population of M. megalophylla has been found in an isolated roost in Southern Mexico with a population of 500,000 (Nowak, 1994). Southwestern Texas is the northernmost extent of the species range where they form smaller colonies than ghost-faced bat populations in more tropical areas (Schmidly, 2004). Unlike other bat species while roosting, ghost-faced bat individuals do not touch each other and maintain approximately 15 centimeters in between each individual (Baker and Raun, 1958). This means that M. megalophylla tends to require a larger cave area for its colonies than most bat species and therefore can be outnumbered in a region by other species of bats which clump together. However, roosting ghost-faced bats will still be spatially separated from other bat species that might be roosting in the same cave (typically Myotis velifer and Tadarida brasiliensis) (Cameron and Rezsutek, 1993; Schmidly, 2004). Males, non-reproducing females, and nursing females all roost in separate caves (NatureServe). Males prefer caves with the coolest temperatures, at 30.6 to 30.8 degrees Celsius. Non-reproductive females are in the middle, preferring ambient temperatures of 33.4 to 34.2 degrees Celsius and nursing females the warmest at 36 degrees Celsius. Non-reproductive females tend to roost in nursing colonies of Leptonycteris curasoae­, the Southern long-nosed bat (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department). Nursing females roost in areas in the deepest parts of caves to minimize ventilation and maximize heat conservation. The heat is produced from their own metabolism and from chemical reactions which occur in guano during decomposition (Cameron and Rezsutek, 1993).

Ghost-faced bats, like most bat species, are nocturnal and leave the roost for feeding. Their flight pattern is very fast, usually a rapid angular ascent from the mouth of the cave. They emerge soon after dark and fly in very dense patterns. Leaf-chinned bats tend to feed later at night than other bat species, using echolocation with high-frequency sounds to determine the location of objects and prey (Tuttle, 2007). They move very fast to their foraging sites in canyons and arroyos, flying at altitudes up to 3000 meters (IUCN Redlist). They are insectivores, usually preferring large-bodied moths but known to eat flying beetles and other taxa and they often catch their prey in mid-air, just above ground level or above standing water (TPWD). M. megalophylla return to their roost after approximately seven hours (Bateman and Vaughan, 1974).

This species has a highly varied habitat range, from tropical Central America to Central Texas and Arizona. There is some seasonal migration between the United States and Mexico in some populations of M. megalophylla. Within Texas, there is also some evidence for the movement of M. megalophylla between the Edwards Plateau for winter and the Trans-Peco region for summer. This migration is likely due to level of rainfall that affect prey species, with the Trans-Peco region having more rainfall in the summer with comparable temperatures (U.S. Climate Data). Typically M. megalophylla become less active during the winter season across the species distribution, but they do not hibernate like other bat species in temperate climates (Nowak, 1994).

Not much is known about the reproductive strategies of M. megalophylla. They likely breed during winter, usually mid- to late- December. Pregnant females have been observed as early as February in southern Mexico and generally are observed later in the spring season, between April and June. Females have one pup per breeding season and lactate between June and August (Schmidly, 2004).

The family Mormoopidae, that includes the mustached bats (Pteronotus), the ghost-faced bats (Mormoops), and the naked-backed bats (Pteronotus), occurs from southern Texas through Mexico and Central America into South America to southern Brazil. Representatives of this family have also been found on the some of the Greater and Lesser Antillean islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and the Netherlands Antilles. This range encompasses environments spanning humid tropical to semi-arid and arid subtropical environments (Smith, 1972).

Mormoops megalophylla is the only representative of Mormoopidae that extends into the United States. Mormoops megalophylla inhabits humid, semi-arid, and arid regions below 3,000 m elevation. Population size and regional density is strongly correlated with the number of roosting sites (e.g. caves, abandoned mines and buildings) that are present in the area (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department). The species range stretches from southwestern Texas and southern Arizona, through Baja California into mainland Mexico, into eastern Honduras and El Salvador, and along the Caribbean coast of Colombia and Venezuela, and along the Pacific coast of Colombia, Ecuador, and northern Peru (Rezsutek et al., 1993). They were also recorded in the Netherland Antilles and in Trinidad (Smith, 1972). Mormoops megalophylla can roost in large colonies, but it is not known about how many colonies exist or how dense they are within a given area or how many individuals are with each colony. In Arizona, they are listed as “uncommon” as there was only one instance where members of this species were captured (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department). They have not been recorded in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, or Panama (Smith, 1972). However, the fossil record indicates that the Mormoops megalophylla once had a broader range than it currently has; remains have been found in Pleistocene deposits in Florida, and in guano deposits of Masones Cave and Jaguey Cave in central Cuba, and Pleistocene remains have also occurred on Hispaniola, Jamaica, Andros Island in the Bahamas, Aruba, Curacao, and Margarita (Rezsutek et al., 1993). The reason for their extinction on these islands is not known, but it may have been due to climate change, or the spread of infectious disease throughout the population.

In Texas, Mormoops megalophylla is typically found in lowlands areas, especially those of desert scrub and riverine habitats of Big Bend Ranch, and in the mountainous counties of Culberson, Davis, Chinati, and the Chisos mountains, and the Sierra Vieja range. They are common winter residents of caves along the extreme southern edge of the Edwards Plateau from November to March, and were collected at Frio Cave in Uvalde County, Webb Cave in Kinney County, Haby Cavy in Bexar County, and Valdina Farms Sinkhole in Medina County in the months of December, January, February, March, May, September, and November (Schmidly, 2004), which suggest that they migrate in the summer; however, not much is known about the Mormoops megalophylla’s seasonal movements due to their rarity in Texas (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department). Some evidence does suggest that these Texan populations do migrate within Texas (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department). In the more tropical zones, these bats do not migrate as the ambient temperature remains constantly warm, and there is a plentiful supply of insects for food (Bonaccorso et al., 1992).

Ghost-faced bats maintain an unusually high body temperature while resting. Various other species of bats are known to thermoregulate their body temperatures to match that of their surroundings (Wilson 2015), but ghost-faced bats’ body temperatures are usually a few degrees higher than the ambient temperature (Bonaccorso, 1992). This is possibly a way to facilitate social interaction; male, nursing, and non-nursing females roost separately, and ghost-faced bats may be able to identify their respective roosting site by its temperature (Rodriguez-Duran, 2002). Males and non-reproducing females inhabit separate caves from nursing females. Within their cave, males and non-reproductive females further subdivide, forming separate colonies with different ambient temperatures, 30.6-30.8 degrees Celsius and 33.4-34.2 degrees Celsius, respectively (Bonaccorso, 1992). Nursing females are known to have the highest temperature roosting sites, at about 36 degrees Celsius (Bonaccorso, 1992), with minimal ventilation in order to conserve heat and therefore conserve energy (The Full Wiki, n.d). Beyond social interaction, such high body temperature by nursing females may also be a way to improve the development of embryos. A high temperature allows the young bats to retain the most heat while developing (Bonaccorso, 1992). Because these bats maintain such a high body temperature, they are sensitive to temperatures that are colder than 10°C (Bonaccorso, 1992). Research shows that the bats will attempt to regulate their body temperatures at lower temperatures, but after a couple of hours they will inevitably succumb to hypothermia (Bonaccorso, 1992).

A major adaptation that ghost-faced bats have evolved for their nocturnal, insectivorous lifestyle is echolocation. Echolocation, which is a biological sonar that uses transient echoes instead of sight to map the environment, is used by ghost-faced bats to hunt for prey at night, and to navigate in dark cave environments where these bats roost. Schnitzler (2001) categorized bat prey-capture behavior in order to classify different species of bat. The research that was done placed ghost-faced bats under the category of aerial insectivores in background-cluttered space (Schnitzler, 2001). Bats in the background-uncluttered space category tend to fly in open spaces, typically high above the ground, while searching for flying insects. These bats can usually ignore the echoes that result from other objects in the area (Schnitzler, 2001). Ghost-faced bats, however, as background-cluttered aerial insectivores, fly near the ground, and have to differentiate between echoes from their prey on the ground and echoes from obstacles (e.g., vegetation, water, ground, etc.; Schnitzler, 2001). To solve this problem, the ghost faced bat can emit two different signals, one to localize prey, and one to navigate the environment in which they are traveling (Schnitzler, 2001). There is generally no overlap between the shallow-modulated narrowband signal (quasi-constant frequency, QCF) and the steep-modulated broadband signal (frequency modulated, FM) (Schnitzler, 2001). The QCF signal is generally used merely to detect prey, while the FM signal is used to categorize all the background information produced (Schnitzler, 2001).Due to this form of echolocation, ghost-faced bats have to make sure the window between signals is enough to make sure the prey's emitted echo is not masked by the bat's emitted call (Schnitzler, 2001).

Ghost faced bats have a complex facial structure, which includes wrinkles and flaps of skin on the face. This structure may be related to echolocation The wrinkles and flaps on the face help the bat shape and send signals, as well as receive them in a manner that can be easily mapped by the bat (Smith-Rodgers, 2011). When these bats have located their prey, they switch calls to focus solely on its target, and their head and ears point toward the prey (Schnitzler, 2001).

Mormoops megalophylla inhabit a variety of humid, arid, and semi-arid habitats that include: desert scrub, mixed boreal-tropical forests, tropical rain forests, and riparian areas (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department). Desert scrub habitats are open, scattered assemblages of broad-leaved evergreen or deciduous microphyll shrubs no more than 2 m in height that occur at relatively low elevation on valley floors and lower bajadas (broad slopes of stream-carried debris along the lower slopes of mountains) (Laudenslayer et al.). Mixed boreal-tropical forests are the transitional zones between pine-oak forests and tropical deciduous forests from approximately 1,475 m to 2,185 m elevation. Tropical rain forests occur between 28 degrees north or south of the equator, and are noted for having high average temperatures and high annual rainfall. Riparian areas are a “vegetated ecosystem along a water body through which energy, materials, and water pass” (Assessment and Watershed Protection Division Office of Water US EPA, 2005). Clearly, this species inhabits a wide variety of ecosystems. The common denominator to all of them, however, is the presence of warm roosting sites for their colonies. Mormoops megalophylla are generally found in primarily limestone caves, abandoned mines, and occasionally in old buildings, and ambient temperature seems to be the major limiting factor in determining where Mormoops megalophylla roost (Bonaccorso et al., 1992).

Mormoops megalophylla often share roosting sites with other bat species, such as Myotis velifer and Tadarida brasiliensis, but prefer, generally, to roost with conspecifics. In their roosts, individuals maintain approximately 15 cm of spacing between each other (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department). The ambient temperature of their habitats is also important for the bats in that it affects the availability of their food source; it has been found that low ambient temperatures during winter coincide with the complete disappearance of insects. For the Mormoops megalophylla, their habitats are warm enough to maintain enough food for them to survive (Bonaccorso et al, 1992.)

Falcon State, Venezuela, has sedimentary limestone geology that is dotted by numerous caves, including Guano Cave (Bonaccorso et al. 1992). Thermal ecology studies of the Guano Cave Mormoops megalophylla population revealed that nursing females tended to roost in the deepest parts of the cave. In these deep chambers the ambient temperature stays relatively constant and relatively high, 36 degrees Celsius, due to lack of air flow in and out of the cave, and the combined effects of trapped metabolic heat from the bats and organic decomposition of bat guano on the cave floor (Bonaccorso et al., 1992). In contrast, male and non-reproductive Mormoops megalophylla females roost separately from nursing females, in Barra Honda Cave. In Barra Honda, three vertical openings in the limestone rock provide higher ventilation and cooler temperatures than in Guano Cave. Males form clusters in larger chambers that open to the outside, with an air temperature of 30.6 - 30.8 degrees Celsius, while non-nursing females prefer warmer interior chambers with an air temperature of 33.4 - 34.2 degrees Celsius (Bonaccorso et al.,1992). It is unknown whether other populations of Mormoops exhibit similar roosting behavior.

Over a period of three years, Bonaccorso and his team captured 23 animals in Falcon and brought them to the laboratory at Coro where each individual was placed into a metabolic chamber, where the researchers measured the bat’s oxygen consumption Once the bat’s oxygen consumption was stabilized and minimal for at least 10 minutes, they measure the bat’s body temperature via a rectal thermometer. The bats possess a maintained a body temperature of around 36.9±1.1 degrees Celsius, and showed a critical thermal minima of 33.5 degrees Celsius, at which they wouldn’t be able to be aroused from hypothermia. Individuals of at least 16.5 g were more efficient in maintaining body temperature in ambient temperatures than lighter individuals, and the bats efficiently maintain their body temperature between 38 to 40 degrees Celsius. Mormoops megalophylla are able to maintain their normal body temperatures in ambient temperatures of 10 degrees Celsius for about 1.5 - 2 hours, but will suffer severe hypothermic symptoms if exposed for longer than 2 hours. Thus, as endotherms, Mormoops megalophylla are able to maintain their body temperature, but only for a short time if temperatures are low. This suggests that Mormoops megalophylla would select roosting sites in habitats that have high ambient temperature to help maintain homeostasis. Relatedly, the bat population in Venezuela does not undergo torpor (Bonaccorso et al., 1992); this may be because it lives in high temperature caves, or it may choose high temperature caves because it does not undergo torpor. The direction of causality is not known, but could be informed by studying roosting and overwintering behavior of bats at higher populations.

Because of the nature and location of their roosting sites, Mormoops megalophylla are threatened by cave collapses, vandalism, disturbances, tourism in Belize, and cave fires in Guatemalan caves, although they are currently categorized as least concern because of its wide distribution, presumed large population, and occurrence in protected areas. (Dávalos et al., 2008).

The ghost-faced bat (Mormoops megalophylla), like most other bats, use echolocation to detect and locate their prey, which consist of a substantial amount of insects.They have distinctive facial features distinguished by a series of flaps and folds of the dermis with very large ears and relatively small eyes, and these features help aid in echolocation. This specialization in echolocation, as well as in thermoregulation, has helped the bat to better suit its environment. The ghost-faced bats are generally found in primarily limestone caves, abandoned mines, and occasionally in old buildings, and ambient temperature seems to be the major limiting factor in determining wherethey roost. The species range stretches from southwestern Texas and southern Arizona, through Baja California into mainland Mexico, into eastern Honduras and El Salvador, and along the Caribbean coast of Colombia and Venezuela, and along the Pacific coast of Colombia, Ecuador, and northern Peru. Ghost-faced bats have a widespread distribution, and their social interactions both within the species and without are divergent from what is normal for bat populations. Ghost-faced bat colonies roost in caves where the nursing females are spatially isolated from the rest of the colony and the individuals do not touch each other within the colony roost site. These nocturnal bats emerge flying high and swooping down low to eat insects hovering just above ground. They breed in late December and nurse pups during the summer. Threats to the ghost-faced bat include habitat degradation of the bats and their prey, commercial pesticide use, and the encroaching threat of white-nosed syndrome, a fungal based disease that is highly contagious and fatal to bats.

Moormoops megalophylla live in caves and covered man-made structures like mines. Conservation of habitat is important for this species survival, especially because the pregnant and nursing females roost in a separate cave from the pups, males, and non-reproductive females (NatureServe). These bats tend to spread out and have a larger functional space than other bat species with similar population counts. Therefore, availability and functionality of habitat is key for sustaining a healthy population. Their habitat consists of mostly mines and caves which can collapse or be obstructed due to geological change. Caves are also prone to disturbance by humans through fires or vandalism, especially in urban areas. Mormoops megalophylla has also occasionally roosted in abandoned buildings which are commonly present in urban settings (Schmidly, 2004). They simulate a structure for bats to reside and roost in if there are not more natural roosting sites available. Buildings are often less prone to collapse than mines or caves, but have a higher likelihood of being affected by disturbance due to proximity to urbane areas. Overall, M. megalophylla has a minimal presence in urban areas due its requirement of a lot of space with uninterrupted spatial connection within each population grouping.

Beyond the destruction and disturbance of caves, habitat destruction of surrounding areas pose an additional threat to M. megalophylla. Habitat degradation drives lower population sizes of insects and arthropods thereby lowering the potential carrying capacity of an environment for the bats. Additional habitat degradation is due to the effect of climate change on vegetation, usually involving smaller rainfall amounts and therefore lessening the vegetative support for prey species.

Despite its separate roosting caves for males, nursing females, and non-nursing females, ghost-faced bats still interact with each other. While Moormoops megalophylla is not a hibernating bat, it does become much less active in winter months and therefore more prone to spreading of disease between individuals within the roost. A current threat to other species that hibernate is the widespread presence of white-nose syndrome. This white-nose syndrome is caused by a fungus, Pseudogymnoascus destructans, which induces an increase in the metabolic breakdown of stored fats in infected individuals. Normally in heathy individuals, this stored fat is slowly depleted over time to sustain the individual during hibernation periods. Without the slow breakdown, and with a lack of foraging during the winter, infected individuals die from starvation. This fungus does well in damp cave environments, emits spores, and is transmitted through contact. (Blehert et. al, 2014). Pseudagymnoascus destructans is a cold-loving fungus and seems to have been introduced in the United States in the northern Midwest. However, since 2007 when it was discovered, it has spread at an alarming rate to affect many species of hibernating bats, stretching as far south as Alabama (National Wildlife Health Center). While M. megalophylla is not currently known to be affected, the fungus has shown a larger range of temperature tolerance than once thought. The presence of P. destructans in similar bat species is a concern for M. megalopylla due to the virulence of the fungus. Current mitigation efforts are limited to preventing further contamination. Not much has been discovered for preventing the spread within bat populations once it arrives, except for stringent cleaning practices for human individuals who might come into contact with the disease during caving (Whitenosesyndrome.org).

Pesticide use for agriculture and for public health reasons affects many bat species due to its effect on insect prey. It is unknown if pesticide use affects M. megalophylla due to lack of research. However, similar aerial forager species with similar prey (flying insects and arthropods) have been shown to be affected by pesticides (Clark, LaVal, and Swineford, 1978). In these other species, the organic pesticides accumulated in the prey species and then was concentrated further in bats upon consumption of prey. The pesticide posed a risk for the reproductive success of the bat species, insecticide spraying often occurs between May and July, coinciding with the lactating period of the pipistrelle study bats (Pipistrellus pipistrellus). During this critically sensitive period for nursing mothers and their pups, pesticides can accumulate in fatty tissues. Similar pesticide practices occur in regions with M. megalophylla during their lactating season between June and August (Bruhl and Stahlschmidt, 2012). Though pesticides and their effect on bat populations should be considered prior to pesticide application, bats are not currently included in environmental assessments of pesticide uses.

The ghost-faced bat (Mormoops megalophylla) is a bat in the genus Mormoops. It is one of only two extant species within its genus, the other being the much smaller Mormoops blainvillii. They are nocturnal and hunt using echolocation.

It gets its name from the unusual appearance of its face, which is due to the flaps of skin that hang from it, its poorly developed nose, and "large, round ears that join across their forehead".