Sika deer primarily use vigilance to protect themselves from predators. Their antlers and sharp hooves can also be used in defense. Predators on sika deer depends on the population in question, as they have been introduced to many different landscapes worldwide. Native predators include tigers, wolves, and humans.
Known Predators:
Cervus nippon is a small to medium-sized deer with a head and body length of approximately 950-1,800 mm, a tail length of about 75-130 mm, and a height (measured at the shoulder) of 640-1090 mm (Feldhamer 1980, Nowak 1991). On average, males grow until they are 7-10 years old, while females stop growing at age 4-6 years (Nowak 1991). This results in the sexual dimorphism of males averaging 8.7% larger than females (Feldhamer 1980 and Nowak 1991). The pelage of C. nippon ranges from chestnut-brown to reddish-olive and exhibits a great deal of variation resulting in colors such as yellow-brown, gray-brown, tan, black, or gray depending on the subspecies (Feldhamer 1980, Flerov 1952, Nowak 1991, Putman 1988, and Whitehead 1972). In addition, the coats of these animals are mottled with white spots arranged in seven or eight rows on the upper sides of the back (Feldhamer 1980, http://www.assateague.com/sika.html 1997, Nowak 1991). Moreover, the mid-dorsal area of C. nippon is darker than the rest of its coat, and this forms a line from head to rear, terminating at a large, white, erectile rump patch often used as a distinguishing characteristic of these animals (Feldhamer 1980, http://www.assateague.com/sika.html 1997, Nowak 1991). The metatarsals of these deer are surrounded by tufts of grayish-tan hairs, and the hooves of adult males average 60 mm in length and 40 mm in width (those of females are slightly smaller) (Feldhamer 1980). The winter coat of sika deer is very dense with 50-70 mm long hairs, while its summer pelage is composed of much finer, straighter, and shorter (30 mm) hairs (Feldhamer 1980 and Putman 1988). The chin, throat, and belly of sika deer have an off-white or gray hue (Feldhamer 1980 and Nowak 1991). Finally, both sexes have a shaggy neck mane that darkens in the winter (Feldhamer 1980 and Nowak 1991).
Two molts occur annually in sika deer (Feldhamer 1980). In northern temperate climates the molt into winter pelage takes place over a 2-4 week period beginning in September, while the summer molt requires approximately 3 months and begins in March (Feldhamer 1980). Interestingly and for unknown reasons, it is the older deer that molt first (Feldhamer 1980).
Antlers are only found among the males of this species (Nowak 1991). In the Northern Hemisphere, males are in velvet antlers from May until August, but hard antlers predominate by early September, just in time for intrasexual selection activities like fraying (Feldhamer 1980). The growth phase of antlers is about 130 days beginning immediately in May when they are generally shed (Feldhamer 1980 and Flerov 1952). It should be noted that older males shed their antlers before their younger counterparts (Feldhamer 1980 and Flerov 1952). The antlers of sika deer are narrow, erect, and directed slightly posteriorly (Brown 1983, Feldhamer 1980, and Nowak 1991). Each is fairly short - measuring about 300-660 mm in length depending on the subspecies and local conditions - and has 2-5 tines (prongs) (Brown 1983, Feldhamer 1980, Nowak 1991, and Putman 1988). A 25 mm diameter at the base of each antler is common, while a spread of 400-500 mm is the maximum observed length (Feldhamer 1980). An upswept brow tine arises approximately 25 mm above the coronet (burr), while a bay tine is absent (Brown 1983 and Feldhamer 1980). Also, a forked, or sometimes palmated, tine surmounts the tray tine and faces forward (Brown 1983 and Feldhamer 1980). Finally, experimentation with antler growth and development have revealed that these processes can be entrained in deer previously sensitized to decreasing day lengths by increasing day lengths (Brown 1983 and Feldhamer 1980).
The skull of C. nippon is relatively short, with a rounded frontal-parietal region (Feldhamer 1980). The nasal bone does not extend beyond the maxilla, the lacrimal vacuity is fairly shallow, and the paroccipital processes extend below the occipital condyle (Feldhamer 1980). Overall, the cranial measurements of adult males averaged 8.9% larger than those of females (Feldhamer 1980). The dental formula of this species is 0/3, 1/1, 3/3, and 3/3 (Feldhamer 1980). The upper canines of sika deer protrude from the maxilla anteriorly, while the lower canines are incisiform (Feldhamer 1980). The molariform teeth are hypsodont and selenodont (Feldhamer 1980).
Range mass: 4.5 to 80 kg.
Range length: 950 to 1800 mm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; ornamentation
Captive individuals generally live 15 to 18 years, though one was recorded living 25 years and 5 months.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 25 (high) years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 15 to 18 years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 26.3 years.
Cervus nippon is primarily a forest-dwelling deer that particularly prefers forested areas with a dense understory (Nowak 1991). However, these animals are able to adapt quite well to a variety of other habitats such as freshwater marshes (Maryland) and grasslands (New Zealand) (Nowak 1991). In addition to their environmental adaptability, sika deer are found at a variety of elevations from sea level to 1800 m, and populations participate in seasonal altitudinal migrations of up to 700 m depending on such factors as snowfall and its subsequent melt, reproductive periods, and plant defoliation (Feldhamer 1980). The summer ranges of these animals are generally higher and larger than their winter ranges (Nowak 1991).
Range elevation: 0 to 1800 m.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; forest ; scrub forest ; mountains
Wetlands: marsh
The original native range of Cervus nippon was described as "the southern Ussuri district of eastern Siberia; China, Formosa, Japan, Korea, Manchuria, Taiwan, and parts of Vietnam" (Feldhamer 1980, Flerov 1952, and Nowak 1991). In addition, numerous introductions have resulted in established populations in Australia, Austria, Denmark, England, France, Ireland, Jolo Island (south of the Philippines), New Zealand, Poland, Scotland, Maryland, Morocco, Oklahoma, Texas, Wisconsin, and Virginia (Feldhamer 1980, http://www.assateague.com/sika.html 1997, Nowak 1991, and Whitehead 1972).
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Introduced ); palearctic (Introduced , Native ); oriental (Introduced , Native ); ethiopian (Introduced ); australian (Introduced )
A sika deer's diet can include any of the following: marsh grasses, fallen leaves, trees, brushy vegetation, herbs, fungi, bamboo, ground ferns, poison ivy, soy beans, and corn depending on environmental conditions (Feldhamer 1980). In other words, these animals are highly adaptable and can be either grazers or browsers in response to the situation at hand (Feldhamer 1980, http://www.assateague.com/sika.html 1997, Nowak 1991).
Plant Foods: leaves; roots and tubers; wood, bark, or stems; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit
Other Foods: fungus
Primary Diet: herbivore (Folivore )
Sika deer were long considered sacred animals in Japan. The fossil record of this species indicates that the Pleistocene deer of Asia - especially those of Japan - strongly resembled C. nippon (Feldhamer 1980).
Cervus nippon is a highly vocal species, and as of 1991, 10 different sounds have been recorded (Nowak 1991). These noises range from soft whistles used by does to communicate with each other, to "goat-like bleats" from does to fawn, to "soft, horse-like neighs" from fawn to does, to "loud, blood-curdling" screams produced by males, to an alarm call described as either a "sharp scream, a high-pitched whistle followed by a gutteral bark, or a chirp-like sound" (Feldhamer 1980, Nowak 1991, and Whitehead 1972).
Sika deer also usual postures and touch in communication. They use chemical cues to convey information on reproductive status and territorial boundaries (see Behavior, above).
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Other Communication Modes: scent marks
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
The following subspecies of C. nippon have been classified as endangered: C. nippon taiouanus of Taiwan, C. nippon keramae of the Ryukyu Islands, C. nippon mandarinus and C. nippon grassianus of northern China, C. nippon kopschi of east-central China, and C. nippon hortulorum of southeastern Siberia, Manchuria, and Korea (Nowak 1991, Whitehead 1972). These animals have been subjected to unregulated hungint for food and commerce, and their forest habitats have been usurped by agriculture (Nowak 1991). In addition, predation by wolves, feral dogs, foxes, and lynx has taken a toll on populations (Feldhamer 1980). Although some sika deer are still present on farms in various locations, the above subspecies may have almost entirely vanished from the wild (except for C. nippon keramae, which still survives on three uninhabited islets) (Nowak 1991). In modern times wild-living populations of sika deer are known to have been established in the British Isles, several countries of mainland Europe, Maryland, Oklahoma, Texas, New Zealand, and Jolo Island (Nowak 1991).
US Federal List: endangered
CITES: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
Because of their taste for soy beans and corn, sika deer have undoubtedly caused some problems for farmers of these crops (Feldhamer 1980).
Negative Impacts: crop pest
Sika deer are valued in China for their antlers, which are used in traditional medicine. They are also an important food and game animal.
Positive Impacts: food ; body parts are source of valuable material
Sika deer are important as large prey animals for larger predators and in manipulating native vegetation through browsing.
Cervus nippon is polygamous, and a successful male will gather as many as 12 females on his territory over the course of the mating (rutting) season (Feldhamer 1980, Nowak 1991). In addition, during the rutting season males quickly deplete their fat stores and may lose up to 20-30% of their body weight (Feldhamer 1980, Flerov 1952). Females, however, do not lose weight during the 6 week rutting season and may associate with a number of bucks in order to gain access to a number of feeding locations (Feldhamer 1980).
Mating System: polygynous
Both sexes reach reproductive maturity at 16-18 months (Nowak 1991). Sika deer breed in the fall (September and October), and births of single offspring occur in May and June after a gestation period of approximately 30 weeks ( http://www.assateague.com/sika.html 1997 and Nowak 1991). The newborn young weighs about 4.5-7.0 kg and is nursed from 1 of its mother's 4 mammae for up to 10 months on an increasingly fatty milk (contains approximately 13% fat at the inception of the lactation period and 30% fat at its conclusion) (Feldhamer 1980 and Nowak 1991). The birth of calves usually takes place in forested areas or open fields, but small outlying patches of cover may be used in some cases (Feldhamer 1980).
Some researchers have proposed that interbreeding between Japanese sika deer and red deer has occurred, yielding hybrid animals with an adaptive advantage over their purebred relatives (Putman 1988).
Breeding interval: Breeding occurs once yearly.
Breeding season: Breeding occurs in the fall, from September through October.
Average number of offspring: 1.
Average gestation period: 7 months.
Range time to independence: 10 to 12 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 16 to 18 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 16 to 18 months.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (Internal ); viviparous
Average birth mass: 5750 g.
Average gestation period: 210 days.
Average number of offspring: 1.
Female sika deer care for their young for up to a year after birth.
Parental Investment: altricial ; female parental care
Sika Deer (Cervus nippon) are native to eastern Asia, mainly Japan and China, but were introduced in ancient times to the Sulu Archipelago (Philippines) and in the 19th and 20th centuries to the British Isles, mainland Europe (Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Poland, western Russia, and Ukraine), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Madagascar, New Zealand, and the United States. Sika Deer have a long relationship with humans, having been farmed, selectively bred, and moved around the globe over centuries.
Sika Deer are typically associated with woodlands with dense undergrowth and adjacent open areas. They can occur up to 3000 m above sea level, but are sensitive to snow depth: more than 40 cm of snow is limiting. Peak activity is around dawn and dusk. Sika Deer are moderately social, living in small groups or alone, with males and females strongly segregated.
Sika Deer routinely jump lengths of 3 to 4 m (8 m maximum) and 1.7 m in height. Normal maximum lifespan for Sika Deer is 15 to 16 years, but maximum longevity in captivity is 25 years.
In their native range, Sika Deer are secure in Japan, but populations across much of their historical range on continental Asia are extinct or endangered due to hunting (for meat, hides, antler velvet, blood, and organs) and habitat loss.
The sika deer (Cervus nippon), also known as the Northern spotted deer or the Japanese deer, is a species of deer native to much of East Asia and introduced to other parts of the world. Previously found from northern Vietnam in the south to the Russian Far East in the north,[1] it is now uncommon except in Japan, where the species is overabundant.[2]
Its name comes from shika (鹿), the Japanese word for "deer". In Japan, the species is known as the nihonjika (ニホンジカ (日本鹿), "Japan deer"). In Chinese, it is known as 梅花鹿; méihuālù; 'plum blossom deer'.
The sika deer is a member of the genus Cervus, a group of deer also known as the "true deer". Formerly, sika were grouped together in this genus with nine other species. Now, only the sika and red deer remain, the latter being divided into three separate species: European red deer, central Asian red deer, and American elk (though this remains controversial).[3]
Recent DNA evidence indicates these deer are not as closely related as previously thought, resulting in the creation of new species and genera. The genera Rucervus, Rusa, and Przewalskium are where most of the former Cervus species now belong. The ancestor of all Cervus species probably originated in central Asia and resembled sika deer.[4] All Cervus species can crossbreed and produce hybrids in areas where they coexist (for example, introduced sika hybridize with native red deer in the Scottish Highlands, where this is a serious threat to the gene pool of the red deer population).
Serious genetic pollution has occurred in many populations, especially in China, so the status of many subspecies remains unclear.[1] The status of C. n. hortulorum is particularly uncertain and might in fact be of mixed origin, hence it is not listed here.
The sika deer is one of the few deer species that does not lose its spots upon reaching maturity. Spot patterns vary with region. The mainland subspecies have larger and more obvious spots, in contrast to the Taiwanese and Japanese subspecies, whose spots are nearly invisible. Many introduced populations are from Japan, so they also lack significant spots.
The color of the pelage ranges from mahogany to black, and white individuals are also known. During winter, the coat becomes darker and shaggier and the spots less prominent, and a mane forms on the back of the males' necks.[6] They are medium-sized herbivores, though they show notable size variation across their several subspecies and considerable sexual dimorphism, with males invariably much larger than females. They can vary from 50 to 110 cm (20 to 45 in) tall at the shoulder and from 95 to 180 cm (35 to 70 in) in head-and-body length. The tail measures about 7.5–13 cm (3–5 in) long.
The largest subspecies is the Manchurian sika deer (C. n. mantchuricus), in which males commonly weigh about 68–109 kg (150–240 lb) and females weigh 45–50 kg (100–110 lb), with large stags scaling up to 160 kg (350 lb), although there had been records of Yezo sika deer bulls weighing up to 170 or 200 kg (370 or 440 lb).[7][8] On the other end of the size spectrum, in the Japanese sika deer (C. n. nippon), males weigh 40–70 kg (90–150 lb) and females weigh 30–40 kg (70–90 lb).[9][10] All sikas are compact and dainty-legged, with short, trim, wedge-shaped heads and a boisterous disposition. When alarmed, they often display a distinctive flared rump, much like the American elk.
Sika stags have stout, upright antlers with an extra buttress up from the brow tine and a very thick wall. A forward-facing intermediate tine breaks the line to the top, which is usually forked. Occasionally, sika antlers develop some palmation (flat areas). Females carry a pair of distinctive black bumps on the forehead. Antlers can range from 28 to 45 cm (11 to 17+1⁄2 in) to more than 80 cm (30 in), depending on the subspecies. Stags also have distinctive manes during their mating period (rut).
Sika deer (stag) at Jægersborg Dyrehave in Denmark
Fawn at the Wildpark Alte Fasanerie in Klein-Auheim
In Shiretoko Peninsula, Hokkaido, Japan
The skull of stag displayed in the Finnish Museum of Natural History, Helsinki, Finland
Sika deer standing up.
Young male in Nara
Sika deer can be active throughout the day, though in areas with heavy human disturbance, they tend to be nocturnal. Seasonal migration is known to occur in mountainous areas, such as Japan, with winter ranges being up to 700 m (2,300 ft) lower in elevation than summer ranges.[6]
Lifestyles vary between individuals, with some occurring alone while others are found in single-sex groups. Large herds gather in autumn and winter. Males spend most years alone occasionally forming herds together. Females with fawns only form herds during birthing season.[11] The sika deer is a highly vocal species, with over 10 individual sounds, ranging from soft whistles to loud screams.
Sika males are territorial and keep harems of females during their rut, which peaks from early September through November,[12] but may last well into the winter. Territory size varies with habitat type and size of the buck; strong, prime bucks may hold up to two hectares (five acres). Territories are marked by a series of shallow pits or "scrapes", which is digging holes (up to 1.6 m in wide and 0.3 m in deep) with forefeet or antlers,[11] into which the males urinate and from which emanates a strong, musky odor. Fights between rival males for territorial disputes, which occur by using hooves and antlers,[11] are sometimes fierce and long and may even be fatal.
The gestation period lasts for seven months. Hinds (does) give birth to a single fawn, weighing 4.5 to 7 kg (10 to 15 lb), which is nursed for up to ten months.[11] The mother hides her fawn in thick undergrowth immediately after giving birth, and the fawn stays very quiet and still while it waits until the mother returns to nurse it. The fawn becomes independent 10 to 12 months after birth,[12][11] and attains sexual maturity at 16 to 18 months in both sexes. The average lifespan is 15 to 18 years in captivity, although one case is recorded as living 25 years and 5 months.[11]
The sika deer may interbreed with the red deer, the closest relative; hybrid descendants may have adaptive advantages over purebred relatives.[11]
In Nara Prefecture, Japan, the deer are also known as "bowing deer", as they bow their heads before being fed special shika senbei (鹿せんべい, called "deer cookies"). However, deer bow heads to signal that they are about to headbutt. Therefore, when a human "bows" to a deer, the deer may take it as a challenge, and will assume the same stance before charging and attempting to headbutt the person. Deer headbutt both for play and to assert dominance, as do goats. Sika deer are found throughout the city of Nara and its many parks and temples like Tōdai-ji, as they are considered to be the messengers of the Shinto gods.[13][14]
Sika deer are found in the temperate and subtropical forests of eastern Asia, preferring areas with dense understory, and where snowfall does not exceed 10–20 cm (4–8 in). They tend to forage in patchy clearings of forests. Introduced populations are found in areas with similar habitats to their native ranges, including Western and Central Europe, Eastern United States, and New Zealand.
Sika deer inhabit temperate and subtropical woodlands, often in areas suitable for farming and other human exploitation. Their range encompasses some of the most densely populated areas in the world, where forests were cleared hundreds of years ago. Their population status varies significantly in different countries. Although the species as a whole is thriving, it is endangered and extinct in many areas.
Japan has by far the largest native sika population in the world. Though the exact population is uncertain, it is likely to be in the hundred thousand range and is still increasing, mainly due to recent conservation efforts and the extinction of its main predator, the Japanese wolf (Canis lupus hodophilax), over a century ago. Without its main predator, the population of sika exploded and it is now overpopulated in many areas, posing a threat to both forests and farmlands. Efforts are now being made to control its population instead of conserving it. None of its subspecies is endangered except the Kerama deer (C. n. keramae) on the tiny Kerama Islands.[2] In 2015, Japanese Ministry of the Environment estimated the population at 3,080,000 in Japan, including Hokkaido.[15]
China used to have the largest population of sika, but thousands of years of hunting and habitat loss have reduced the population to less than 1,000.[1] Of the five subspecies in China, the North China sika deer (C. n. mandarinus) is believed to be extinct in the wild since the 1930s; the Shanxi sika deer (C. n. grassianus) has not been seen in the wild since the 1980s and is also believed to be extinct in the wild. The status of Manchurian sika deer in China is unclear, though it is also believed to be extinct, and the sightings there are actually feral populations.
The South China sika deer (C. n. kopschi) and Sichuan sika deer (C. n. sichuanicus) are the only subspecies known to remain in the wild in China. The former exists in fragmented populations of around 300 in southeast China, while the latter is found in a single population of over 400. The feral population is likely to be much higher than the wild, though most of them are descended from domesticated sikas of mixed subspecies. All of the subspecies are present in captivity, but a lack of suitable habitats and government efforts prevent their reintroduction.
The Formosan sika deer (C. n. taioanus) has been extinct in the wild for almost two decades before individuals from zoos were introduced to Kenting National Park; the population now numbers 200. Reintroduction programs are also under way in Vietnam, where the Vietnamese sika deer (C. n. pseudaxis) is extinct or nearly so.
Russia has a relatively large and stable population of 8,500–9,000 individuals of the Manchurian subspecies,[1] but this is limited to a small area in Primorsky Krai. Small populations might exist in North Korea, but the political situation makes investigation impossible. The species is extinct in South Korea, with no plans for reintroduction.
Outside of a store on the island of Miyajima
Tame deer wandering the streets of the town of Miyajima, Japan
Sika deer have been introduced into a number of other countries, including Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland, Russia, Romania, New Zealand, Australia, the Philippines (Jolo Island), Poland, Sweden, Finland, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States (Delaware, Kansas, Maryland,[16] Oklahoma, Nebraska,[16] Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Virginia, Indiana, Michigan,[16] Minnesota, Maine, Texas,[16] Wyoming, Washington). In many cases, they were originally introduced as ornamental animals in parklands, but have established themselves in the wild. On Spieden Island in the San Juan Islands of Washington, they were introduced as a game animal.
In the UK and Ireland, several distinct feral populations now exist. Some of these are in isolated areas, for example on the island of Lundy, but others are contiguous with populations of the native red deer. Since the two species sometimes hybridize, a serious conservation concern exists.[17] In research which rated the negative impact of introduced mammals in Europe, the sika deer was found to be among the most damaging to the environment and economy, along with the brown rat and muskrat.[18]
In the 1900s, King Edward VII presented a pair of sika deer to John, the second Baron Montagu of Beaulieu. This pair escaped into Sowley Wood and were the basis of the sika to be found in the New Forest today. They were so prolific, culling had to be introduced in the 1930s to control their numbers.[19]
Across its original range and in many areas to which it has been introduced, the sika is regarded as a particularly prized and elusive sportsman's quarry. In Britain, Ireland, and mainland Europe, sika display very different survival strategies and escape tactics from the indigenous deer. They have a marked tendency to use concealment in circumstances when red deer, for example, would flee, and have been seen to squat and lie belly-flat when danger threatens.
In the British Isles, sika are widely regarded as a serious threat to new and established woodlands, and public and private forestry bodies adopt policies of rigorous year-round culling.[20]
The main predators of sika deer include tigers, wolves,[11] leopards, and brown bears. Lynx and golden eagles target fawns.
Velvet antler (dried immature antlers) is a popular ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine, and sika in China were domesticated long ago for the antler trade, along with several other species. In Taiwan, both Formosan sika deer and Formosan sambar deer (Cervus unicolor swinhoei) have been farmed for velvet antlers. Japan is the only country in eastern Asia where sika deer were not farmed for velvet antlers.
Other deer raised for the antler trade were Thorold's deer (Cervus albirostris), central Asian red deer (Cervus canadensis affinis), and American elk (Cervus canadensis canadensis).
In Shinto, the Shika Deer is considered a kind of messenger between mortals and the kami.
The sika deer (Cervus nippon), also known as the Northern spotted deer or the Japanese deer, is a species of deer native to much of East Asia and introduced to other parts of the world. Previously found from northern Vietnam in the south to the Russian Far East in the north, it is now uncommon except in Japan, where the species is overabundant.
