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Trophic Strategy

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Like most sharks, common thresher sharks are carnivores and feed mainly on small fish that travel in schools. Thresher sharks use their enlarged caudal fin as a means to herd schools of fish into tightly packed balls to maximize strike success. Common threshers eat a variety of fish, including sardines, and different species of anchovies, mackerel, hake, squid and red crab from deep waters. In warmer waters, members of this species feed primarily on anchovies, but in cooler waters they feed mostly on squid and sardines.

Animal Foods: fish; mollusks; aquatic crustaceans

Primary Diet: carnivore (Piscivore )

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Lewis, J. 2011. "Alopias vulpinus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alopias_vulpinus.html
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John Lewis, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Benefits

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Because common thresher sharks stay beyond areas where humans swim, they do not pose any physical threat to humans. They do, however, cause damage to commercial fisheries by destroying nets and other equipment when caught in drift nets.

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Lewis, J. 2011. "Alopias vulpinus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alopias_vulpinus.html
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John Lewis, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Life Cycle

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Common thresher sharks are oviparous. Immediately after birth, young are independent and albe to survive on their own. However, because newborn sharks are 69 to 92 cm in length, they are easy targets for larger sharks. Consequently, thresher sharks stay in a nursery area for roughly 3 years until they are large enough to avoid predation. This species grows fairly slowly, taking 9 to 13 years to reach sexual maturity. Males usually mature earlier than females, at around 9 to 10 years age, while females mature at 12 to 13 years. Common thresher sharks are indeterminate growers.

Development - Life Cycle: indeterminate growth

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Lewis, J. 2011. "Alopias vulpinus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alopias_vulpinus.html
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John Lewis, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Conservation Status

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Because common thresher sharks are sold in many foreign fish markets, the demand for their meat is high. In many areas of the Atlantic ocean, populations of common thresher sharks have been reduced up to 67 % in the last ten years. However, stricter catch-and-release policies in the Pacific have led to more stable populations. The IUCN lists Alopias pelagicus as threatened. Many conservation attempts have developed "no-fishing" marine reserves to reduce the number of common thresher sharks that are caught in nets. However, forcing commercial fisheries to move fishing zone to establish marine reserves has consequently put other species in danger.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: vulnerable

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Lewis, J. 2011. "Alopias vulpinus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alopias_vulpinus.html
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John Lewis, Radford University
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Behavior

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As solitary animals, very little is known about communication between common thresher sharks. Because this species has poor vision, they often rely on other senses to detect prey. Like most sharks, common threshers perceive their environment in many ways. The lateral line in all sharks detects vibrations in the surrounding waters. This aides in locating prey from great distances, as vibrations travel well in water. Common threshers also have a strong sense of smell, and chemicals can be detected in low concentrations. Upon finding a potential meal, most threshers will bump the object with their nose or take a small test bite to determine if the object is edible before committing to a full strike. Common thresher sharks also use electromagnetic senses to perceive their environment and hunt prey. They use sensory organs clustered in their nose and head to sense impulses in the water from injured and dying fish.

Communication Channels: visual ; electric

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; chemical ; electric ; magnetic

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Lewis, J. 2011. "Alopias vulpinus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alopias_vulpinus.html
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John Lewis, Radford University
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Benefits

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Common thresher sharks are an integral part of global commercial fishing. Although they are not target speecies for fishing in the Americas, they are often incidentally caught in commercial gill nets. In other countries, including China, they are the third most targeted catch of fisheries, valued less only to the game fish Xiphias gladius and sailfish Istiophorus albicans. Common thresher sharks make up a large part of Chinese fish markets. In many areas, the demand for thresher shark meat has led to overfishing and a major decrease in population size. Also, the livers of common thresher sharks contain a small amount of oil that is considered valuable and sold in high dollar amounts.

Positive Impacts: food ; body parts are source of valuable material

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Lewis, J. 2011. "Alopias vulpinus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alopias_vulpinus.html
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John Lewis, Radford University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Associations

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Common thresher sharks are often used as bio-indicators of pollutants due to their diet and near-shore habitat. Common threshers act as host for many parasitic copepods such as Nemesis robusta and Bariaka alopiae. Nemesis robusta usually infects the gills of common thresher sharks causing gill erosion and inflammation, resulting in reduced gas exchange. Another common copepod parasite of this speices is Gangliopus pyriformis, although exactly how this copepod affects common threshers is unknown. Like most sharks and rays, common threshers have a mutualistic relationship with pilot fish. Pilot fish eat copepods and other parasites from the shark while the shark provides for the pilot fish.

Mutualist Species:

  • Pilot fish Naucrates ductor

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

  • Nemesis robusta
  • Gangliopus pyriformis
  • Bariaka alopiae
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Lewis, J. 2011. "Alopias vulpinus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alopias_vulpinus.html
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John Lewis, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Distribution

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Common thresher sharks, Alopias pelagicus, are found in tropical and temperate temperate waters in almost every major ocean. They are found along the coast of North America from Oregon to Mexico in the Pacific Ocean and from Maine to Florida in the Atlantic Ocean. Common thresher sharks are also commonly found around Asia and occasionally in the central and western Pacific Ocean. Although little is known about the migration of this species, fishing records suggest that they move north, away from the equator, during summer months and that they move south, toward the equator, during winter months.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Native ); ethiopian (Native ); neotropical (Native ); australian (Native ); atlantic ocean ; pacific ocean (Native )

Other Geographic Terms: cosmopolitan

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Lewis, J. 2011. "Alopias vulpinus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alopias_vulpinus.html
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John Lewis, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Habitat

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Common thresher sharks primarily live in temperate waters beyond the continental shelf and do not stray much more than 30 km from the coast. During the day, they stay near the edge of the continental shelf at an average depth of 110 m. Common thresher sharks have been documented diving to depths of 217 m below sea level, though this is uncommon. At night, members of this species spend most of their time at a mid-range depths, remaining near or on the continental shelf.

Range depth: 217 (high) m.

Average depth: 110 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; saltwater or marine

Aquatic Biomes: pelagic ; coastal

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Lewis, J. 2011. "Alopias vulpinus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alopias_vulpinus.html
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John Lewis, Radford University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Life Expectancy

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The lifespan of common thresher sharks in the wild is poorly documented, and threshers are not held in captivity. Other species of thresher sharks, such as Alopias pelagicus and Alopias pelagicus, can live 20 to 30 years in the wild. The largest common thresher shark ever recorded was 4.75 m long and 510 kg. Using the growth coefficient of common thresher sharks, this shark was determined to be 43 years old. Thus Alopias pelagicus may have a greater lifespan than other members of its genus.

Range lifespan
Status: wild:
43 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
25 years.

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Lewis, J. 2011. "Alopias vulpinus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alopias_vulpinus.html
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John Lewis, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Morphology

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Common thresher sharks weigh 348 kg on average and can reach up to 500 kg. They range from 1.6 to 6 m in length, averaging 2.74 m. Up to 50 % of a thresher's length is due to the characteristic enlarged upper lobe of its caudal fin. Alopias pelagicus is the largest of the thresher species, and, unlike other threshers, they have "erect and narrow cusps" (Springer, 1943) on their teeth. Like other species of threshers, common threshers have relatively small eyes near the front of the head. Common thresher shaks can be identified by their dark green dorsal fin; in other similar species, dorsal fins are blue to purple.

Range mass: 500 (high) kg.

Average mass: 348 kg.

Range length: 1.6 to 6 m.

Average length: 2.74 m.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike

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Lewis, J. 2011. "Alopias vulpinus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alopias_vulpinus.html
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John Lewis, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Associations

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There are few known predators of common thresher sharks. Other sharks, like makos, reef sharks and even members of the same species, eat juvenile common threshers. Pups usually keep to shallow nursery areas that are separate from adults as a defense from predation.

Known Predators:

  • makos Isurus
  • reef sharks Carcharhinus
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Lewis, J. 2011. "Alopias vulpinus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alopias_vulpinus.html
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John Lewis, Radford University
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Karen Francl, Radford University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Reproduction

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In some parts of the world, common thresher sharks breed all year long. The migratory patterns of common thresher sharks near North America suggest they breed in northern waters during the spring and sumer and release their pups into nurseries along the coast as they travel south for the winter months. Common thresher sharks are polygynous (the male impregnates multiple females), but little is known about their mating behavior.

Mating System: polygynous

In some parts of the world, common thresher sharks are thought to breed all year long. The migratory patterns of common thresher sharks near North America suggest they breed in northern waters during the spring and sumer and release their pups into nurseries along the coast as they travel south for the winter months. Females are oviviparous and can only carry two pups at a time. Pups are born independent, but remain in a nursery area for approximately 3 years for safety. Male common thresher sharks reach maturity at 9 to 10 years of age, and females at 12.3 to 13.4 years of age.

Breeding season: year-round

Range number of offspring: 1 to 2.

Range time to independence: 0 to 5 minutes.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 12.3 to 13.4 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 9 to 10 years.

Key Reproductive Features: year-round breeding ; sexual ; fertilization (Internal ); ovoviviparous

There is little to no post-birth parental investment among common thresher sharks. Once born, pups are fully independent and remain in a shallow nursery area for protection.

Parental Investment: no parental involvement

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Lewis, J. 2011. "Alopias vulpinus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alopias_vulpinus.html
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John Lewis, Radford University
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Gail McCormick, Special Projects
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Biology

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The thresher shark is an active strong-swimming fish that is occasionally seen leaping out of the water (2). It feeds primarily on small, schooling fish, but also fish that dwell on the ocean bottom, squids, octopi and, very rarely, seabirds (2). It uses its unique tail fin to herd fish together in tight shoals, and then stuns them with powerful swipes of the tail. Sometimes two threshers may cooperate in their attack, swimming round the school of fish in ever decreasing circles, then striking the shoal with their tails before turning to swallow their stunned or dead victims (2) (3). Thresher sharks possess some remarkable physiological adaptations which explain their strength and endurance in a wide range of latitudes and depths. Along each of their flanks runs a strip of red muscle, which can contract powerfully for long periods, enabling the thresher shark to swim for long periods without fatigue (4). In addition, this red muscle contains a meshwork of tiny blood vessels which transfer heat back towards the body core. Retaining body heat enables the shark to remain active and react quickly even in cold water (3) (4), and also results in much faster digestion, enabling it to feed again rapidly, should the opportunity arise (3). Thresher sharks are ovoviviparous, meaning that the young develop inside a weakly formed shell within the female. The gestation period is reported to be nine months, with litters of two to seven pups born during the spring (2). Thresher sharks reach maturity at between three and eight years old, and are estimated to live for 45 to 50 years (2).
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Conservation

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The thresher shark is believed to be able recover from the impact of fisheries fairly quickly (2) (5); for example, since fishing of the thresher shark was banned in California in 1990 this population has begun to recover (5) (7). However, the brevity of the Californian fishery shows how uncontrolled fishing can decrease a population very quickly, indicating that harvesting of this species should be carried out with caution and with adequate management measures in place (1) (5). Unfortunately, unmanaged fisheries operating throughout the world might be over-exploiting the thresher shark, and reducing numbers to a level they may not always be able to recover from.
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Description

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With their enormous, curving upper lobe of the tail fin, which can be as long as the body, thresher sharks are one of the most instantly recognisable of all sharks (2). This slender, whip-like tail can be a deadly weapon, used to herd, stun and kill the thresher shark's prey (3). The body is blue-grey to dark grey or blackish on top, with silvery or coppery sides and white undersides (2). The pectoral fins are curved and taper to a point, and the snout is short and pointed (2). The eyes and jaws are relatively small (2), but the thresher shark's sharp teeth are efficient at capturing slippery prey (3). This thresher shark can be distinguished from other threshers by the position of the first dorsal fin which has its leading edge situated above the trailing edge of the pectoral fins (3).
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Habitat

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The thresher shark inhabits both coastal waters and oceans far from land, from the surface to depths of at least 366 metres (2). Young thresher sharks are often found close inshore and in shallow bays (2).
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Range

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Occurs in oceanic and coastal areas in tropical to cold-temperate seas around the world, but it most common in temperate waters (2).
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Status

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Classified as Data Deficient (DD) by the IUCN Red List (1).
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Threats

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The thresher shark is an important economic species in many areas (1), such as the northwestern Indian Ocean, the western, central and eastern Pacific, and the North Atlantic (2). Its flesh is highly prized for human consumption, its fins are sought after for shark fin soup, its skin can be used for leather and the liver provides vitamin rich oil (2). The tendency of the thresher shark to fight strongly when caught also makes it a popular target for sports anglers (2). The World Conservation Union (IUCN) considers there to be insufficient data on the thresher shark to determine the extent to which it may be threatened by these activities, although there is evidence that this shark is highly vulnerable to over-fishing (1). In California, a fishery started in 1977 for several species of shark, including the thresher. Catches peaked in 1982 and declined thereafter, showing that uncontrolled fishing can rapidly deplete a population. This fishery was outlawed in 1990 (5). Declines have also been observed in the Northwest Atlantic, where thresher shark numbers are estimated to have declined by over 75 percent between 1986 and 2000 (6). Here, and in many other areas, fishing of the thresher shark continues, often without any management measures in place (1).
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Brief Summary

provided by Ecomare
Threshers are easy to identify by their extremely long tail fin. The top part of the tail fins is often longer than the body itself. The shark uses its long tail to hunt schools of fish. It swims in continually smaller circles around the school while thrashing its tail. And then it attacks. Threshers can produce quite a clap with their tail. Sometimes a bird is hit unconscious. As long as they don't feel threatened, threshers are not dangerous for humans.
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Brief Summary ( Dutch; Flemish )

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Een voshaai is makkelijk te herkennen aan zijn extreem lange staartvin. Het bovenste deel van die staartvin is vaak langer dan het lichaam zelf. De voshaai gebruikt zijn lange staart om op scholen vis te jagen. De haaien zwemmen dan in steeds kleinere cirkels om de scholen heen, terwijl ze met hun staart zwiepen. Daarna gaan ze tot de aanval over. Ze kunnen flinke klappen uitdelen met hun staart. Een enkele keer wordt een vogel bewusteloos geslagen. Zolang ze zich niet bedreigd voelen, zijn voshaaien niet gevaarlijk voor mensen.
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Benefits

provided by FAO species catalogs
Widely caught or formerly caught in offshore longline and pelagic gill net fisheries including those of the former USSR, Japan, Taiwan (Province of China), Spain, the USA, Brazil, Uruguay, Mexico, and other countries. Especially important areas for these fisheries are the northwestern Indian Ocean, the western, central, and eastern Pacific, and the North Atlantic. Also fished with anchored bottom and surface gill nets, and accidentally caught in other gear including bottom trawls and fish traps. The species became the object of an important targeted pelagic gill net fishery off the west coast of the United States (particularly California but also Washington and Oregon) in the late 1970s, peaking at about 1 000 t in 1982 and declining due to overfishing to less than 300 t by the late 1980s. The targeted fishery was ended by 1990 but the species was still caught as bycatch of the swordfish gill net fishery and may be sold for higher prices in the market than swordfish. The meat is highly prized fresh for human consumption (cooked) but is also eaten smoked and dried-salted; the fins are valuable for shark-fin soup; the hide is usable for leather and the liver oil can be processed for vitamins.Sports anglers seek these sharks in the USA, South Africa, and elsewhere with rod and reel. These sharks fight strongly when hooked and may jump out of the water. This and other threshers are listed as record fishes by the International Game Fish Association. Conservation Status : The conservation status of this shark is little known but is of some concern despite its midrange intrinsic rebound potential (a measure of the capacity to recover from fishing pressure; Smith, Au and Show, 1998) because of the history of the eastern Pacific thresher fishery (which declined quickly despite a relatively small and localized catch), and its exposure to high-intensity offshore fisheries virtually wherever it occurs. Additional information from IUCN database Additional information from CITESdatabase
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SHARKS OF THE WORLD. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Volume 2 Bullhead, mackerel and carpet sharks (Heterodontiformes, Lamniformes and Orectolobiformes).Leonard J.V. Compagno 2001. FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes. No. 1, Vol. 2. Rome, FAO. 2001. p.269.
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Brief Summary

provided by FAO species catalogs
Coastal over the continental and insular shelves and epipelagic far from land in temperate to tropical waters, most abundant near land; young often close inshore and in shallow bays. Depth range from the surface and the intertidal to at least 366 m, often near the surface. An active, strong-swimming shark, sometimes leaping out of the water. Thresher sharks in the northwestern Indian Ocean and off the west coast of North America show spatial and depth segregation by sex.Off the west coast of North America (and probably elsewhere) the species is seasonally migratory, and moves northward from Baja California into California waters during the spring, with adult males tending to travel farther northward than females and reaching the coast of British Columbia. Juveniles are mostly found in shallow warm-temperate inshore waters, particularly off southern California where an important nursery area occurs. Juveniles may be less cold-tolerant than adults, and seldom range north of central California. Both adults and juveniles congregate in inshore waters of southern California, primarily during spring and summer. Behaviour is otherwise poorly known, and little is known of sociobiology and behaviour patterns. Transoceanic migrations have not been demonstrated, and there may be separate populations with slightly different fecundity and size at maturity in the eastern Pacific and western Indian Ocean, and possibly elsewhere, but this remains to be determined. Ovoviviparous and apparently a uterine cannibal (oophagous), number of young 2 to 4 and rarely 6 in a litter off California (usually 2 to 4, commonly 4), and 3 to 7 in the eastern Atlantic. This species apparently uses inshore nursery areas in temperate waters (east coast of the United States, California, South Africa, the northeastern Atlantic and western Mediterranean, and probably elsewhere), with young sharks occurring in shallow bays (California, South Africa). In the eastern North Pacific (California) the species mates in summer, has a gestation period of nine months and gives birth during the spring. This shark matures between 3 and 8 years old, with a maximum age estimated at 45 to 50 years (Cailliet et al., 1983). Feeds mostly on small schooling fishes but also bottom fishes, including herring, sardines, shad, pilchards and menhaden (Clupeidae), anchovies (Engraulidae), lanternfishes (Myctophidae), lancetfishes (Alepisauridae), needlefishes (Belonidae), scad (Trachurus, Carangidae), mackerels (Scombridae), bluefishes (Pomatomidae), plaice and flounder (Pleuronectidae) and sole (Soleidae); also squids, octopus and pelagic crustaceans, and rarely seabirds. Herds and stuns its prey with its long, whip-like caudal fin, and is often caught on longlines by being tailhooked. It swims in narrowing circles around schools of small fishes, splashing water with its caudal fin and compressing the school, then strikes and injures fishes with the caudal. Two threshers may cooperate on bunching and killing small fish.
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SHARKS OF THE WORLD. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Volume 2 Bullhead, mackerel and carpet sharks (Heterodontiformes, Lamniformes and Orectolobiformes).Leonard J.V. Compagno 2001. FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes. No. 1, Vol. 2. Rome, FAO. 2001. p.269.
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Size

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The largest thresher. Maximum total length at least 573 cm and possibly to over 610 cm, with an estimated maximum at 651 cm from growth curves and older unconfirmed records up to 760 cm. Size at birth 114 to 160 cm, with term foetuses up to 139 to 156 cm and small freeliving specimens down to 117 to 145 cm. Immature males up to at least 252 cm, while an adolescent male examined was 288 cm and adult males are 314 to at least 420 cm. Females maturing at about 315 to 400 cm, with immature or adolescent females up to 395 cm and adult females 376 to at least 549 cm. A length-weight equation is given by Kohler, Casey and Turner (1995) for fork length: W(kg) = 1.8821 x 10-4 FL(cm)2.5188 (n = 88; both sexes) where: FL(cm) = 0.5474 x TL(cm) + 7.0262 (n = 13)
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SHARKS OF THE WORLD. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Volume 2 Bullhead, mackerel and carpet sharks (Heterodontiformes, Lamniformes and Orectolobiformes).Leonard J.V. Compagno 2001. FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes. No. 1, Vol. 2. Rome, FAO. 2001. p.269.
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Distribution

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Oceanic and coastal, virtually circumglobal in tropical to cold-temperate seas but commonest in temperate waters. Western Atlantic (including Gulf of Mexico): Canada (Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Quebec, north to the Bay of Chaleur, Gulf of St. Lawrence), USA (entire Atlantic Coast but rare south of New England; Gulf Coast off Florida, Mississippi and Texas), Cuba, Mexico (Veracruz to Campeche), Venezuela, Brazil to Argentina. Eastern Atlantic: Norway and British Isles to Mediterranean and Black Seas, Morocco, Madeira, the Azores, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, Angola, Namibia, and South Africa (Western Cape and probably Northern Cape). Indo-West Pacific: South Africa (Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal), Tanzania, Somalia, Maldives, Chagos Archipelago, Gulf of Aden, possibly Oman, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Sumatra, Japan, Republic of Korea, China, Taiwan (Province of China), Australia (Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia), New Zealand, New Caledonia. Central Pacific: Society Islands, Fanning Islands, Hawaiian Islands. Eastern Pacific: Canada (British Columbia), the USA (Washington, Oregon and California) and Mexico (Baja California), south to Panama and Chile.
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SHARKS OF THE WORLD. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Volume 2 Bullhead, mackerel and carpet sharks (Heterodontiformes, Lamniformes and Orectolobiformes).Leonard J.V. Compagno 2001. FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes. No. 1, Vol. 2. Rome, FAO. 2001. p.269.
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Diagnostic Description

provided by FAO species catalogs
fieldmarks: Long curving dorsal caudal lobe about as long as rest of shark, relatively small eyes, falcate, pointed pectoral fins, white colour of abdomen extending over pectoral fin bases. Head broad in dorsal and ventral view, with a strongly convex dorsolateral profile. Snout relatively short, conical and pointed. Eyes moderately large at all sizes, not expanded onto dorsal surface of head and without a vertical, binocular field of view; interorbital space broadly convex. Labial furrows present. Teeth smaller with 32 to 52/25 to 50 rows (total for both jaws 58 to 102 rows); posterior tooth rows 2 to 10; symphysial and intermediate tooth rows usually present. No nuchal grooves present above branchial region. Pectoral fins falcate and with curved and narrow tips. Claspers extremely slender and whip-like. First dorsal-fin midbase closer to pectoral-fin bases than to pelvic fin bases. Caudal tip moderately slender with moderately broad terminal lobe. Ribs of monospondylous precaudal vertebrae lateral and not fused ventrally as a canal. Total vertebral count 339 to 364. Intestinal valve count 33 to 34. body blue-grey to dark grey or blackish above with sides silvery or coppery and underside white, white colour of abdomen extending dorsally and anteriorly over pectoral-fin bases as a conspicuous patch; white dot often present on upper pectoral-fin tips.

References

  • Bedford, 1987
  • Cailliet & Bedford, 1983
  • Cailliet, 1983
  • Cailliet, Holts & Bedford, 1993
  • Cailliet & Radtke, 1987
  • Cailliet, Radtke & Welden, 1986
  • Compagno, 1984- 1990b
  • Eitner, 1995
  • Gruber & Compagno, 1981
  • Gubanov, 1972- 1978
  • Hanan, Holts & Coan, 1993
  • Hixon, 1979
  • Kohler, Casey & Turner, 1995
  • Moreno, Parajua & Móron, 1989
  • Pascoe, 1986
  • Smith, Au & Show, 1998

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SHARKS OF THE WORLD. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Volume 2 Bullhead, mackerel and carpet sharks (Heterodontiformes, Lamniformes and Orectolobiformes).Leonard J.V. Compagno 2001. FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes. No. 1, Vol. 2. Rome, FAO. 2001. p.269.
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Migration

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Oceanodromous. Migrating within oceans typically between spawning and different feeding areas, as tunas do. Migrations should be cyclical and predictable and cover more than 100 km.
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Recorder
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Trophic Strategy

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Occurs on the continental shelf and slope (Ref. 75154).
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Morphology

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Dorsal spines (total): 0; Dorsal soft rays (total): 0; Analspines: 0; Analsoft rays: 0
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Diagnostic Description

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A large thresher with relatively small eyes, curved, narrow-tipped pectoral fins, a narrow-tipped caudal fin, and a conspicuous white patch over the pectoral fin bases (Ref. 5578). Second dorsal origin well behind the rear tip of the pelvic fin (Ref. 559). Upper lobe of caudal fin very long and strap-like, about as long as or longer than length of rest of shark; lower lobe short but well developed (Ref. 13570). Brown, grey, blue-grey, or blackish on back and underside of snout, lighter on sides and abruptly white below; a white area extends from the abdomen over the pectoral-fin bases; pectoral-, pelvic-, and dorsal fins blackish, white dots sometimes present on pectoral-, pelvic-, and caudal- fin tips (Ref. 13570).
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Life Cycle

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Ovoviviparous, embryos feed solely on the ova produced by the mother after the yolk sac is absorbed (oophagy) (Ref. 50449), 2 to 4 young in a litter (usually 2) (Ref. 247). Size at birth 114-150 cm (Ref. 247). Distinct pairing with embrace (Ref. 205).
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Biology

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Coastal over continental and insular shelves and epipelagic far from land (Ref. 30573, 43278, 58302). Oceanic although most abundant near land, pelagic at 1-366 m (Ref. 58302). Young often close inshore and in shallow bays (Ref. 5578). Feeds on schooling fishes (including mackerels, bluefishes, clupeids, needlefishes, lancetfishes and lanternfishes), squid, octopi, pelagic crustaceans, and rarely seabirds (Ref. 247). Ovoviviparous, embryos feeding on yolk sac and other ova produced by the mother (Ref. 43278, 50449). Uses its long caudal fin to bunch up and stun prey (Ref. 2850). Spatial and depth segregation by sex in northwestern Indian Ocean populations (Ref. 247). A few attacks on boats are doubtfully attributed to this species, but it is otherwise apparently harmless to humans, though the size of adults of this species command respect (Ref. 247). May cause damage to fishing gear (Ref. 6885). Valued for its meat, liver, hide, and fins; utilized fresh, dried-salted, smoked, and frozen (Ref. 9987).
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Importance

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fisheries: commercial; gamefish: yes
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Distribution ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Chile Central
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Universidad de Santiago de Chile
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Pablo Gutierrez
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分布

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分布於世界各溫帶及熱帶海域。臺灣北部、東北部及東部海域有分布。
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利用

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主要以底拖網、流刺網及延繩釣捕獲,經濟價值高。肉質佳,魚肉紅燒或加工成各種肉製品;鰭可做魚翅;皮厚可加工成皮革;肝可加工製成維他命及油;剩餘物製成魚粉。
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描述

provided by The Fish Database of Taiwan
體頗粗大,亞圓筒形,背部輪廓圓凸,腹面平坦。頭較長,略側扁,亞圓錐形。尾特別延長,可達頭及軀幹部之1.5倍以上。尾基上方具一凹窪;尾柄無側突。吻短而鈍尖。眼小,圓形,無瞬膜。前鼻瓣短呈三角形;具唇溝,無觸鬚。口弧形,下頜極短,口閉時不露齒;齒小,中齒尖直而呈三角形,外側具無小齒尖;上下頜齒常多於29列,在前方者較大,後方者較小。噴水孔微小。背鰭2個,同型,第一背鰭小型,起點於體中部或稍前,後緣凹入,上角鈍圓,下角微尖突,基底後端與腹鰭基底起點相分離;第二背鰭很小,遠小於第一背鰭,起點於腹鰭及臀鰭中間,後緣斜直,上角圓,下角微尖突;胸鰭末緣略彎而尖禿;尾鰭很長,尾椎軸稍上揚,上葉不發達,僅見於尾端近處,下葉前部顯著三角形突出,中部低而延續近尾端,與後部間有無缺刻,後部小三角形突出與上葉相連,尾端尖突,後緣凹入。體背側灰褐或黑褐色;腹側淺褐色;腹面白色,且延伸至胸鰭基底上方,為重要的外觀分類特徵。第一背鰭後緣、第二背鰭上部、臀鰭上下部、腹鰭及胸鰭的外角均為淡色。
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棲地

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大洋性大型鯊魚,但時常會出現於岸邊及近海,或大陸棚外,棲息深度可達550公尺。可以利用其長形尾擊昏獵物,主要捕食群游魚類及頭足類。卵胎生,胎兒在子宮內有同種相殘習性,一胎可產下2-4尾幼鯊,剛產下之幼鯊體長可達120-150公分左右。
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Fynstert-sambokhaai ( Afrikaans )

provided by wikipedia AF

Die Fynstert-sambokhaai (Alopias vulpinus) kom aan die hele kus van Suid-Afrika voor. Dit word tot 6 m lank. Die lyf is torpedovormig met 'n bruin tot blou-grys kleur terwyl die onderkant wit is. 'n Kenmerk van die haai is sy lang stertvin. Dit kom aan die kus sowel as in die oop water voor en gaan tot 366 m diep. Die haai is vivipaar en 2-7 kleintjies word op 'n keer gebore na 'n dratyd van 12 maande. Die fynstert-sambokhaai is eetbaar, maar word deur die IUBN geklassifiseer as 'n kwesbare spesie. In Engels is die haai bekend as die Thresher.

Sien ook

Bron

Eksterne skakel

Wiki letter w.svg Hierdie artikel is ’n saadjie. Voel vry om Wikipedia te help deur dit uit te brei.
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Fynstert-sambokhaai: Brief Summary ( Afrikaans )

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Die Fynstert-sambokhaai (Alopias vulpinus) kom aan die hele kus van Suid-Afrika voor. Dit word tot 6 m lank. Die lyf is torpedovormig met 'n bruin tot blou-grys kleur terwyl die onderkant wit is. 'n Kenmerk van die haai is sy lang stertvin. Dit kom aan die kus sowel as in die oop water voor en gaan tot 366 m diep. Die haai is vivipaar en 2-7 kleintjies word op 'n keer gebore na 'n dratyd van 12 maande. Die fynstert-sambokhaai is eetbaar, maar word deur die IUBN geklassifiseer as 'n kwesbare spesie. In Engels is die haai bekend as die Thresher.

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Alopias vulpes (foguina) ( Asturian )

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Artículu revisáu

La foguina (Alopias vulpes) ye una especie d'elasmobranquiu lamniforme de la familia Alopiidae.[2] La so estraordinaria cola mide cuasi tantu como'l restu del so cuerpu. El lóbulu inferior de la cola ye pequeñu, pero'l superior ye bien llargu, narquiáu y termináu en punta. Tien cinco pares d'abertures branquiales.

Aliméntase, en solitariu o en grupu, de bálamos de pexes. Usa la cola a manera de llátigu que ximielga d'un llau a otru p'arrodiar o mancar a les sos preses. Cuando nada cerca de la superficie, dacuando balta col rau aves marines que vuelen baxu. La fema pare hasta 4 críes d'una sola vegada; produz más embriones, pero delles críes comen a les otres cuando inda tán dientro de la madre.

Nes agües d'Asturies apaez mui de ralo en ralo. Solamente apaez documentáu na obra de Barriuso nos cais de Tazones y Llastres, documentáu nesti últimu como "gatu".

Referencies

  1. Goldman, K.J., Baum, J., Cailliet, G.M., Cortés, E., Kohin, S., Macías, D., Megalofonou, P., Perez, M., Soldo, A. & Trejo, T.. «Alopias vulpes» (inglés). Llista Roxa d'especies amenazaes de la UICN 2010.2. Consultáu'l Septiembre de 2010.
  2. "Alopias vulpinus". En FishBase (Ranier Froese y Daniel Pauly, eds.). Consultáu en 7 de xineru de 2010. N.p.: FishBase, 2010.

Bibliografía

  • El léxico de la fauna marina en los puertos pesqueros de Asturias Central, Emilio Barriuso, Uviéu 1986. IDEA.
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Alopias vulpes (foguina): Brief Summary ( Asturian )

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Artículu revisáu

La foguina (Alopias vulpes) ye una especie d'elasmobranquiu lamniforme de la familia Alopiidae. La so estraordinaria cola mide cuasi tantu como'l restu del so cuerpu. El lóbulu inferior de la cola ye pequeñu, pero'l superior ye bien llargu, narquiáu y termináu en punta. Tien cinco pares d'abertures branquiales.

Aliméntase, en solitariu o en grupu, de bálamos de pexes. Usa la cola a manera de llátigu que ximielga d'un llau a otru p'arrodiar o mancar a les sos preses. Cuando nada cerca de la superficie, dacuando balta col rau aves marines que vuelen baxu. La fema pare hasta 4 críes d'una sola vegada; produz más embriones, pero delles críes comen a les otres cuando inda tán dientro de la madre.

Nes agües d'Asturies apaez mui de ralo en ralo. Solamente apaez documentáu na obra de Barriuso nos cais de Tazones y Llastres, documentáu nesti últimu como "gatu".

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Louarn-mor ( Breton )

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Al louarn-mor, pe falc'her, (Alopias vulpinus) a zo ur pesk migornek kar d'ar rinkin.

 src=
Tiriad al louarn-mor.
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Peix guilla ( Catalan; Valencian )

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El peix guilla, pestriu de cua o rabosa (Alopias vulpinus) és un tauró gros que pot arribar als sis metres, però sovint és més petit.

Morfologia

 src=
Captura d'un peix guilla

És inconfusible per la seua cua amb el lòbul superior molt llarg i estret. Musell curt, espiracle molt reduït, cinc fenedures branquials, sense membrana nictitant als ulls. Dues dorsals, la primera grossa i triangular, la segona molt petita, igual com l'anal. Les aletes pectorals són llargues i en forma de falç. Dors de color blavós, més clar als flancs. Ventre blanc. El mascle arriba a adult quan fa entre 319 i 420 cm, i la femella entre els 376 i 549 cm. Pot fer 500 kg de pes.

Ecologia

Menja principalment sardina, seitó, verat, bis, sorell, i també calamars, pops i crustacis pelàgics. Ocasionalment captura ocells marins que estan a l'aguait dels bancs de peixos que ell ataca.

La tècnica que fa servir per pescar les seues preses consisteix a copejar l'aigua amb el lòbul superior de la cua. Aquesta estratègia (a la qual deu el nom de peix guilla) li permet reunir les preses i capturar-les amb més eficiència.

És ovovivípar aplacentari i presenta canibalisme intrauterí. Generalment a l'estiu la femella pareix de dues a quatre cries, que mesuren en néixer entre 114 i 159 cm.

Bibliografia

  • Barrull, Joan i Mate, Isabel: Els taurons dels Països Catalans. Editorial Pòrtic, S.A. Col. Conèixer la natura, núm. 14. Barcelona, març del 1996. ISBN 84-7306-920-X. Plana 115.
  • Bellido-Millán, J.M. i Villavicencio-Garayzar, C.J., 2002: Pesqueria artesanal de tiburón en la region central del Golfo de California. A Lozano-Vilano, M. L. (Ed.). Libro Jubilar en Honor al Dr. Salvador Contreras Balderas., Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León: 143-152.
  • Compagno, L.J.V., Sharks of the World. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of sharks species known to date. Part 1. Hexanchiformes to Lamniformes. 1984: FAO Species Catalogue. FAO Fish. Synop. Núm. 125, 4(1): 1-249.
  • Eschmeyer, William N., ed. 1998. Catalog of Fishes. Special Publication of the Center for Biodiversity Research and Information, núm. 1, vol. 1-3. California Academy of Sciences. San Francisco (Califòrnia, Estats Units). 2905. ISBN 0-940228-47-5.
  • Helfman, G., B. Collette i D. Facey: The diversity of fishes. Blackwell Science, Malden, Massachusetts (Estats Units), 1997.
  • Kabasakal, H. 1998: A note on the occurrence of the thresher shark, Alopias vulpinus from south-western Black Sea. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom v. 78 (núm. 2): 685-686
  • Llorente, Gustavo i Lope, Sílvia: Guia dels animals que es venen al mercat, plana 64.. Ed. Pòrtic, col·lecció Conèixer la natura, núm. 13. Barcelona, novembre del 1994, ISBN 84-7306-909-9
  • Moyle, P. i J. Cech.: Fishes: An Introduction to Ichthyology, 4a edició, Upper Saddle River, Nova Jersey, Estats Units: Prentice-Hall. Any 2000.
  • Nelson, J.: Fishes of the World, 3a edició. Nova York, Estats Units: John Wiley and Sons. 1994.
  • Wheeler, A.: The World Encyclopedia of Fishes, 2a edició, Londres: Macdonald. 1985

Enllaços externs

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Peix guilla: Brief Summary ( Catalan; Valencian )

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El peix guilla, pestriu de cua o rabosa (Alopias vulpinus) és un tauró gros que pot arribar als sis metres, però sovint és més petit.

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Llwynog Môr ( Welsh )

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Pysgodyn sy'n byw yn y môr ac sy'n perthyn i deulu'r Alopiidae ydy'r llwynog môr sy'n enw gwrywaidd; lluosog: llwynogod môr (Lladin: Alopias vulpinus; Saesneg: Common thresher).

Mae ei diriogaeth yn cynnwys y Môr Canoldir a Chefnfor yr Iwerydd; ac mae i'w ganfod ym Môr y Gogledd ac arfordir Cymru.

Ar restr yr Undeb Rhyngwladol dros Gadwraeth Natur (UICN), caiff y rhywogaeth hon ei rhoi yn y dosbarth 'Bregus' (Vulnerable) o ran niferoedd, bygythiad a chadwraeth.[1]

Gweler hefyd

Cyfeiriadau

  1. Gwefan www.marinespecies.org adalwyd 4 Mai 2014
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Llwynog Môr: Brief Summary ( Welsh )

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Pysgodyn sy'n byw yn y môr ac sy'n perthyn i deulu'r Alopiidae ydy'r llwynog môr sy'n enw gwrywaidd; lluosog: llwynogod môr (Lladin: Alopias vulpinus; Saesneg: Common thresher).

Mae ei diriogaeth yn cynnwys y Môr Canoldir a Chefnfor yr Iwerydd; ac mae i'w ganfod ym Môr y Gogledd ac arfordir Cymru.

Ar restr yr Undeb Rhyngwladol dros Gadwraeth Natur (UICN), caiff y rhywogaeth hon ei rhoi yn y dosbarth 'Bregus' (Vulnerable) o ran niferoedd, bygythiad a chadwraeth.

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Liškoun obecný ( Czech )

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Liškoun obecný (Alopias vulpinus) je druh žraloka, jehož název je odvozený od dlouhého ocasu používaného k nahánění hejna ryb do jednoho místa a jejich následnému omráčení. Též se nazývá žralok liščí či žralok mlatec.[2]

Charakteristika

Dorůstá maximální délky 5,7 m a dosahuje maximální hmotnosti 500 kg. Má 5 malých žaberních otvorů. Jeho prsní ploutve jsou poměrně velké. Může mít šedé, modrošedé, hnědošedé, někdy i načervenalé zbarvení s kovovým leskem.

Vyskytuje se ve všech tropických a subtropických mořích, většinou plave u hladiny, ale někdy až do hloubky 350 m.

Má 2–4 (nejvýš 6) mláďat o velikosti 1–2,5 m. Živí se rybami.

Odkazy

Reference

  1. Červený seznam IUCN 2018.1. 5. července 2018. Dostupné online. [cit. 2018-08-09]
  2. BioLib.cz – Alopias vulpinus (liškoun obecný) [online]. BioLib.cz [cit. 2016-03-12]. Dostupné online.

Externí odkazy

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Liškoun obecný: Brief Summary ( Czech )

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Liškoun obecný (Alopias vulpinus) je druh žraloka, jehož název je odvozený od dlouhého ocasu používaného k nahánění hejna ryb do jednoho místa a jejich následnému omráčení. Též se nazývá žralok liščí či žralok mlatec.

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Gemeiner Fuchshai ( German )

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Der Gemeine Fuchshai (Alopias vulpinus), auch als Drescher(-hai) bekannt, ist eine Art der Makrelenhaiartigen (Lamniformes) mit einer maximalen Körperlänge von über sechs Metern. Dieser Hai fällt vor allem durch den sehr langen oberen Teil der Schwanzflosse auf und ist weltweit in den küstennahen Bereichen gemäßigter bis tropischer Meere anzutreffen. Die vergrößerte Schwanzflosse nutzt der Hai vor allem für die Jagd, indem er mit ihr auf seine Beute einschlägt.

Merkmale

Der Gemeine Fuchshai erreicht eine Körperlänge von durchschnittlich drei bis vier Metern und kann maximal über sechs Meter lang werden. Der aktuell größte gefangene Fuchshai hatte eine Länge von 7,60 Meter, das bislang größte Gewicht lag bei 340 Kilogramm.[1]

Besonders auffällig ist die außergewöhnlich große Schwanzflosse mit der kräftigen Schwanzwurzel. Dabei ist der obere Teil der Schwanzflosse (oberer Lobus) fast so lang wie der restliche Körper des Hais, während der untere Teil im Vergleich zu anderen Haiarten nicht vergrößert ist. Wie alle Makrelenhaiartigen besitzt auch dieser Hai zwei Rückenflossen, von denen die erste ebenso wie die sichelförmigen Brustflossen sehr groß ist, während die zweite wie die Analflosse sehr klein und daher nur undeutlich erkennbar ist. Die erste Rückenflosse setzt hinter dem hinteren freien Ende der Brustflossen an. Die Männchen haben lange, spitze Klaspern.[2]

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Der Schwanz besitzt einen ausgeprägten oberen und einen sehr viel kleineren unteren Lobus.

Auf der Oberseite ist die Art dunkel, grauschwarz, bläulich oder grünlich gefärbt, die Körperseiten sind silbrig oder kupfrig und grau-schwarz. Auf der Bauchseite ist die Färbung heller bis weiß. Im Bereich der Schwanzwurzel und unterhalb der Bauchflossen reicht die dunkle Flankenfärbung bis zur Bauchseite und löst sich hier in ein unregelmäßiges Muster aus Flecken und Punkten auf. Auch die Unterseite der Brustflossen weist große dunkle Flecken auf, besitzt jedoch im Bereich des Ansatzes einen großen, V-förmigen weißen Bereich.[2] Dieser unterscheidet ihn gemeinsam mit den spitzen Brustflossenenden und dem etwas breiteren Kopf vom Pazifischen Fuchshai (Alopias pelagicus).[1]

Die Augen, die keine Nickhäute besitzen, sitzen seitlich am Kopf und sind sehr groß, reichen jedoch nicht wie bei dem verwandten Großaugen-Fuchshai (Alopias superciliosus) bis auf die Kopfoberseite. Dieser besitzt zudem beiderseits des Kopfes V-förmige Furchen (von oben betrachtet), eine längere Schnauze und weniger Zähne.[1][3]

Die Schnauze ist konisch geformt, und die Labialfalten beiderseits des verhältnismäßig kleinen Mauls sind nur kurz. Die Zähne des Ober- und Unterkiefers sind spitz und gebogen. Sie haben nur eine Spitze und besitzen fein gesägte Kanten. Die Haie haben beiderseits im Oberkiefer jeweils 19 bis 26 und im Unterkiefer 21 bis 24 Zähne.[3] Der Hai besitzt ein sehr kleines Saugloch und fünf Kiemenspalten, wobei die 4. und 5. Kiemenspalte über dem Ansatz der Brustflosse sitzen.[2] Die mit horizontal ausgerichteten Schneiden ausgestatteten Placoidschuppen stehen eng beieinander und überlappen einander teilweise; mit einer Größe von 0,2 × 0,21 mm sind sie sehr klein.[1]

Verbreitung

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Verbreitungsgebiet des Gemeinen Fuchshais

Der Gemeine Fuchshai lebt nahezu weltweit küstennah und pelagisch in Tiefen bis über 350 Metern in tropischen, subtropischen und gemäßigten Breiten des Atlantiks, des Indischen Ozeans und des Pazifiks. Im West-Atlantik reicht sein Verbreitungsgebiet von Neufundland bis in die Karibik um Kuba und von dort weiter nach Süden bis zum südlichen Brasilien und Argentinien; im Ostatlantik ist er von Norwegen und den Britischen Inseln über die gesamte europäische Atlantikküste einschließlich des Mittelmeeres bis Ghana und zur Elfenbeinküste anzutreffen. Das indo-pazifische Verbreitungsgebiet reicht von Südafrika über die gesamte ostafrikanische Küste einschließlich Madagaskars bis zur Arabischen Halbinsel und zum Golf von Aden und von dort über die Küsten von Pakistan, Indien, Sri Lanka, China, Südostasien mit Indonesien und den Philippinen, Japan und Korea bis nach Australien, Neuseeland und in die umgebende Inselwelt (Ozeanien). An der amerikanischen Pazifikküste ist er von der Küste von British Columbia bis Baja California und von dort über Mittelamerika bis nach Chile anzutreffen.[1][4]

Im Mittelmeer handelt es sich um eine häufige Art,[5] die in allen Bereichen anzutreffen ist und die vor allem im Golfe du Lion und vor den spanischen Küsten auch regelmäßig Jungtiere zur Welt bringt.[3] Die Fuchshaie der europäischen Küsten wandern im Sommer nach Norden und kommen so bis in die Nordsee und in den Skagerrak, selten ist er dadurch auch in der Ostsee anzutreffen.[5]

Verhalten

Der Fuchshai ist ein aktiver und schneller Schwimmer, der wie andere Haie eine gegenüber dem Meerwasser leicht erhöhte Körpertemperatur aufweist (Pseudowarmblüter). Er lebt als Einzelgänger oder in kleinen, teilweise gleichgeschlechtlichen Gruppen. Bekannt ist er zudem für meterhohe Sprünge aus dem Wasser. Ausgewachsene Fuchshaie können Beutetiere des Großen Schwertwals (Orcinus orca) sein, wie Beobachtungen aus Neuseeland belegen.[6]

Ernährung

Der Hai ernährt sich vor allem von kleinen bis mittelgroßen Knochenfischen, die etwa 97 % seiner Nahrung ausmachen. Dabei handelt es sich vor allem um kleine bis mittelgroße Schwarmfische wie Menharden, Heringe, Makrelen, Makrelenhechte, Butterfische, Sardinen und Sandaale. Seltener jagen sie auch Bonitos und andere größere Fische, Kopffüßer, Krebstiere und sehr selten Seevögel.[1] Die Haie zeigen saisonale Wanderungen entlang der Küsten, wobei sie ihren Nahrungsschwärmen folgen.

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Heringsschwarm. Schwarmfische stellen die Hauptnahrung des Gemeinen Fuchshais dar.

Zur Jagd umkreist der Hai Fischschwärme und nutzt seine sehr lange Schwanzflosse zur Jagd, indem er mit dem oberen Lobus kräftig in die Fischschwärme schlägt und dabei Einzelfische tötet oder betäubt, die er dann frisst. Von dieser Jagdmethode leitet sich auch der Name „Drescherhai“ (engl. „Thresher Shark“) ab: er drischt mit seinem Schwanz auf seine Beute ein wie mit einem Dreschflegel. Am 14. April 1923 konnte der Ozeanograph W. E. Allen einen etwa zwei Meter langen Fuchshai bei der Verfolgung eines Fisches (wahrscheinlich Atherinopsis californiensis) beobachten. Der Hai überholte den Fisch und schwang seinen Schwanz aus dem Wasser wie eine Peitsche, womit er den Fisch schwer verletzte.[7] Dieses Verhalten können die Haie sowohl als Einzeltiere wie auch gemeinsam mit Artgenossen zeigen, auch die Jagd auf Seevögel mit Schwanzschlägen wurde bereits beobachtet. So behauptete der irische Ichthyologe Harry Blake-Knox im Winter 1865, dass er einen Fuchshai in der Dublin Bay beobachten konnte, wie er einen Eistaucher (Gavia immer) mit seinem Schwanz schlug und danach verschluckte. Blake-Knox' Beobachtung wurde in der Folge von Experten mehrfach angezweifelt, da ihrer Meinung nach der Schwanz nicht muskulös genug für einen solchen Schlag ist.[7]

Aufgrund ihrer Jagdtechnik werden Fuchshaie häufig Opfer der Langleinenfischerei: Sie bleiben mit ihrem Schwanz an den Haken hängen, weil sie nach gefangenen Fischen als potenzieller Beute schlagen.[8]

Fortpflanzung und Entwicklung

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Föten des Gemeinen Fuchshais

Fuchshaie sind wie andere Makrelenhaie lebendgebärend (aplazental vivipar). Die Paarungszeit liegt in der Regel im Juli und August (Kalifornien), und die Geburt findet nach einer Tragzeit von neun Monaten von März bis Juni (Kalifornien), im Sommer (Sizilien und Adria) oder zwischen Januar und Mai (nordwestlicher Indischer Ozean) des Folgejahres statt.[8] Die Weibchen tragen ein bis sechs, durchschnittlich vier, Jungtiere, die sich im Mutterleib von unbefruchteten Eiern ernähren (Oophagie).[9]

Bei der Geburt sind sie bereits 1,1 bis 1,6 Meter lang[9] und 5 bis 6 kg schwer. Sie wachsen als Jungtiere um etwa 50 und als ausgewachsene Tiere etwa 10 Zentimeter pro Jahr.[1] Die Geschlechtsreife erreichen die Tiere regional bei unterschiedlicher Länge; die Männchen sind weltweit mit einer Länge zwischen 2,6 und 3,4 Meter bei einem Alter von drei bis sieben Jahren geschlechtsreif, die Weibchen um Australien mit einer Länge von 3,5 bis 4 Meter, im Indischen Ozean bereits zu 80 Prozent mit 2,7 bis 3,3 Metern und vor Kalifornien mit 2,6 bis 3,2 Metern.[8] Die maximale Lebensdauer beträgt 15 bis 19 Jahre.

Systematik

Der Gemeine Fuchshai wurde erstmals 1788 von Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre auf der Basis eines Individuums aus dem Mittelmeer als Squalus vulpinus beschrieben. Die erste Einordnung in die heutige Gattung Alopias erfolgte als Alopias macrourus im Jahr 1810 durch Constantine S. Rafinesque-Schmaltz (Rafinesque). Aufgrund der Internationalen Regeln für die Zoologische Nomenklatur (ICZN) ist die gültige Bezeichnung des Hais durch die Erstbeschreibung entsprechend Alopias vulpinus. Eine Reihe von Synonymen tauchte seit der Erstbeschreibung auf und wurde verworfen bzw. mit der bereits beschriebenen Art synonymisiert.[10]

Der Gemeine Fuchshai bildet gemeinsam mit dem Großäugigen und dem Pazifischen Fuchshai die Gattung Alopias, wobei er auf der Basis molekularbiologischer Untersuchungen diesen beiden Arten zusammen als Schwesterart gegenübergestellt wird.[11]

Fuchshaie

Gemeiner Fuchshai (Alopias vulpinus)


N.N.

Pazifischer Fuchshai (Alopias pelagicus)


Großäugiger Fuchshai (Alopias superciliosus)




Innerhalb der Art werden keine Unterarten beschrieben, die molekulargenetischen Untersuchungen von Eitner 1995 lassen jedoch auf eine potenzielle neue und bislang noch nicht beschriebene vierte Fuchshaiart schließen, deren Angehörige aktuell noch dem Gemeinen Fuchshai zugeordnet werden.[11]

Etymologie

(Gr.) ἀλώπηξ ist der Fuchs; einen «alopias» gibt es zwar nicht, aber bei Athenaios den ἀλωπέκιας als eine Hai-Art; (lat.) vulpinus „fuchsartig“ (von vulpes).

Fuchshaie und der Mensch

Fuchshaie gelten trotz ihrer Größe allgemein als ungefährlich. Einzelne Angriffe auf Boote wurden allerdings bekannt; in den Shark Attack Files sind vier Bootsangriffe durch Alopias-Arten, wahrscheinlich den Gemeinen Fuchshai, verzeichnet. Taucher werden in der Regel mit großem Abstand umkreist, Angriffe sind nicht bekannt.[8]

Bedrohung

 src=
Gemeiner Fuchshai an einer Angelleine.
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Fischgericht mit Fuchshai und Heilbutt.

Der Gemeine Fuchshai ist in der Sportfischerei beliebt, da er dem Angler einen „harten Kampf“ mit Sprüngen aus dem Wasser bietet. Die Hauptbedrohung stellt allerdings die kommerzielle Fischerei dar, für die er in vielen Regionen eine wichtige Speisefischart und zugleich eine häufige Art im Beifang der Treibnetzfischerei darstellt. Das Fleisch wird als hochwertiges Frischfleisch oder getrocknet und gesalzen verkauft und konsumiert. Die großen Flossen werden zudem als Zutaten für Haifischflossensuppe genutzt, die Haut kann zu Haileder verarbeitet werden, und das Öl der Leber stellt eine wertvolle Vitaminquelle dar.[12] Vor Kalifornien und in anderen Gebieten des Pazifischen und Indischen Ozeans wird die Art teilweise sehr stark überfischt. Die Population vor Kalifornien hat durch den Fischereidruck über die letzten drei Generationen um mehr als 50 % abgenommen.[12]

Eine Einordnung in die Rote Liste der IUCN erfolgte 2000, allerdings nur in der Rubrik "data deficient", da die Datenlage in vielen Regionen der Welt sehr lückenhaft ist.[12] 2007/2008 gab die IUCN bekannt, dass der Gemeine Fuchshai auf der Basis einer Untersuchung der IUCN SSC Shark Specialist Group (SSG) zu pelagischen Hai- und Rochenarten gemeinsam mit den beiden anderen Fuchshaiarten in die Kategorie „gefährdet“ („vulnerable“) eingestuft wird.[13][14]

Belege

  1. a b c d e f g Vanessa Jordan: Thresher Shark. Florida Museum of Natural History. Aufgerufen am 28. Juni 2009.
  2. a b c Merkmale (wenn nicht anders benannt) nach Compagno 1984 und Compagno u. a. 2005.
  3. a b c De Maddalena & Bänsch 2005.
  4. nach Compagno 1984.
  5. a b Michael R. George, Heike Zidowitz: Checkliste der europäischen Knorpelfischarten mit wissenschaftlichen und deutschen Namen. In: Zeitschrift für Fischkunde. Band 8, Heft 1/2 2006; S. 71–78.
  6. Visser, I.N.: First Observations of Feeding on Thresher (Alopias vulpinus) and Hammerhead (Sphyrna zygaena) Sharks by Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) Specialising on Elasmobranch Prey. In: Aquatic Mammals. 31, Nr. 1, Januar 2005, S. 83–88. doi:10.1578/AM.31.1.2005.83.
  7. a b Ecology of the Common Thresher (Alopias vulpinus)
  8. a b c d R. A. Martin: Biology of the Common Thresher (Alopias vulpinus). ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research.
  9. a b Angaben (wenn nicht anders benannt) nach Compagno 1984 und Compagno u. a. 2005.
  10. Eine Ausführliche LIste von Synonymen findet sich bei Compagno 1984.
  11. a b Blaise J. Eitner: Systematics of the Genus Alopias (Lamniformes: Alopiidae) with Evidence for the Existence of an Unrecognized Species. In: Copeia. 1995 (3), S. 562–571.
  12. a b c Alopias vulpinus in der Roten Liste gefährdeter Arten der IUCN 2006. Eingestellt von: Goldman, K.J. & members of the Shark Specialist Group, 2002. Abgerufen am 16. Jun 2006.
  13. More oceanic sharks added to the IUCN Red List. (PDF; 13 kB) Pressemitteilung vom 2. Februar 2207.
  14. You can swim but you can’t hide – more oceanic sharks on the IUCN Red List. (Memento vom 15. Mai 2012 im Internet Archive) Pressemitteilung vom 22. Mai 2008.

Literatur

  • Leonard Compagno, Marc Dando, Sarah Fowler: Sharks of the World. Princeton Field Guides, Princeton University Press, Princeton/ Oxford 2005, ISBN 0-691-12072-2, S. 180–181.
  • Leonard Compagno: Sharks of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date. Volume 2: Bullhead, mackerel and carpet sharks (Heterodontiformes, Lamniformes and Orectolobiformes). FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes. No. 1, Vol. 2. FAO Rom 2001 (Alopias vulpinus. Vollständiges PDF)
  • Alessandro de Maddalena, Harald Bänsch: Haie im Mittelmeer. Franckh-Kosmos Verlag, Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-440-10458-3, S. 136–138.
  • Ralf M. Hennemann: Haie und Rochen weltweit. Jahr-Verlag, Hamburg 2001, ISBN 3-86132-584-5, S. 69.

Weblinks

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Gemeiner Fuchshai: Brief Summary ( German )

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Der Gemeine Fuchshai (Alopias vulpinus), auch als Drescher(-hai) bekannt, ist eine Art der Makrelenhaiartigen (Lamniformes) mit einer maximalen Körperlänge von über sechs Metern. Dieser Hai fällt vor allem durch den sehr langen oberen Teil der Schwanzflosse auf und ist weltweit in den küstennahen Bereichen gemäßigter bis tropischer Meere anzutreffen. Die vergrößerte Schwanzflosse nutzt der Hai vor allem für die Jagd, indem er mit ihr auf seine Beute einschlägt.

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Κοινός αλωπίας ( Greek, Modern (1453-) )

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Ο καρχαρίας κοινός αλωπίας (Alopias vulpinus - Αλωπίας ο αλεπουδίσιος) είναι το μεγαλύτερο είδος αλωπία, οικογένεια Αλωπιείδες (Alopiidae), φτάνοντας σε μέγιστο γνωστό μήκος 6 μέτρα. Σχεδόν το μισό του μήκους αποτελεί ο επιμήκης άνω λοβός του ουραίου πτερυγίου του. Αυτή η δομή χρησιμοποιείται από τον καρχαρία σαν μαστίγιο για να χτυπήσει το θήραμά του. Ο κοινός αλωπίας μοιάζει (και συχνά συγχέεται) με τον πελαγικό αλωπία (Α. pelagicus), ο οποίος έχει επίσης ένα υδροδυναμικά εξελιγμένο σώμα, κοντό ρύγχος και μετρίου μεγέθους μάτια. Μπορεί να διακριθεί από τον πελαγικό καθώς το λευκό της κοιλίας του επεκτείνεται σε μια λωρίδα πάνω από τις βάσεις των θωρακικών πτερυγίων του.

Οι κοινοί αλωπίες κατοικούν τόσο σε παράκτια και όσο σε πελαγικά νερά σε τροπικά και εύκρατα κλίματα σε όλο τον κόσμο, από την επιφάνεια έως βάθος 550 μέτρων. Οι καρχαρίες είναι εποχικά αποδημητικοί και ακολουθούν το ζεστό νερό σε υψηλότερα γεωγραφικά πλάτη το καλοκαίρι. Ο κοινός αλωπίας είναι γρήγορος, ισχυρός κολυμβητής που έχει γίνει γνωστός για τα άλματα έξω από το νερό. Διαθέτει φυσιολογικές προσαρμογές που του επιτρέπουν να διατηρήσει εσωτερική θερμοκρασία του σώματος υψηλότερη από αυτό των γύρω θαλασσινών νερών. Το είδος τρέφεται κυρίως με μικρά κοπάδια ψαριών. Από κοινού με άλλους καρχαρίες, ο κοινός αλωπίας είναι ωοζωοτόκος με τα αναπτυσσόμενα έμβρυα να είναι ωοφάγα, να τρέφονται δηλαδή με αγονιμοποίητα αυγά που παρέχονται από την μητέρα τους. Τα θηλυκά γεννούν 2-7 νεογνά μετά από μια περίοδο κύησης εννέα μηνών.

Αν και μεγάλος ο κοινός αλωπίας έχει σχετικά μικρά δόντια και ήρεμη συμπεριφορά, και γι'αυτό το λόγο δεν αποτελεί κίνδυνο για τον άνθρωπο. Ο κοινός αλωπίας θεωρείται εμπορικό είδος για το κρέας, το συκώτι και τα πτερύγιά του. Όμως ο κοινός αλωπίας δεν είναι βιώσιμο είδος όταν υπεραλιεύεται επειδή έχει μικρό ρυθμό αναπαραγωγής.

Παραπομπές

  1. Goldman, K.J., Baum, J., Cailliet, G.M., Cortés, E., Kohin, S., Macías, D., Megalofonou, P., Perez, M., Soldo, A. & Trejo, T. (2007). Alopias vulpinus στην Κόκκινη Λίστα Απειλούμενων Ειδών της IUCN. Έκδοση 2013.2. Διεθνής Ένωση Προστασίας της Φύσης (IUCN). Ανακτήθηκε 10 Ιαν. 2014.
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Κοινός αλωπίας: Brief Summary ( Greek, Modern (1453-) )

provided by wikipedia emerging languages

Ο καρχαρίας κοινός αλωπίας (Alopias vulpinus - Αλωπίας ο αλεπουδίσιος) είναι το μεγαλύτερο είδος αλωπία, οικογένεια Αλωπιείδες (Alopiidae), φτάνοντας σε μέγιστο γνωστό μήκος 6 μέτρα. Σχεδόν το μισό του μήκους αποτελεί ο επιμήκης άνω λοβός του ουραίου πτερυγίου του. Αυτή η δομή χρησιμοποιείται από τον καρχαρία σαν μαστίγιο για να χτυπήσει το θήραμά του. Ο κοινός αλωπίας μοιάζει (και συχνά συγχέεται) με τον πελαγικό αλωπία (Α. pelagicus), ο οποίος έχει επίσης ένα υδροδυναμικά εξελιγμένο σώμα, κοντό ρύγχος και μετρίου μεγέθους μάτια. Μπορεί να διακριθεί από τον πελαγικό καθώς το λευκό της κοιλίας του επεκτείνεται σε μια λωρίδα πάνω από τις βάσεις των θωρακικών πτερυγίων του.

Οι κοινοί αλωπίες κατοικούν τόσο σε παράκτια και όσο σε πελαγικά νερά σε τροπικά και εύκρατα κλίματα σε όλο τον κόσμο, από την επιφάνεια έως βάθος 550 μέτρων. Οι καρχαρίες είναι εποχικά αποδημητικοί και ακολουθούν το ζεστό νερό σε υψηλότερα γεωγραφικά πλάτη το καλοκαίρι. Ο κοινός αλωπίας είναι γρήγορος, ισχυρός κολυμβητής που έχει γίνει γνωστός για τα άλματα έξω από το νερό. Διαθέτει φυσιολογικές προσαρμογές που του επιτρέπουν να διατηρήσει εσωτερική θερμοκρασία του σώματος υψηλότερη από αυτό των γύρω θαλασσινών νερών. Το είδος τρέφεται κυρίως με μικρά κοπάδια ψαριών. Από κοινού με άλλους καρχαρίες, ο κοινός αλωπίας είναι ωοζωοτόκος με τα αναπτυσσόμενα έμβρυα να είναι ωοφάγα, να τρέφονται δηλαδή με αγονιμοποίητα αυγά που παρέχονται από την μητέρα τους. Τα θηλυκά γεννούν 2-7 νεογνά μετά από μια περίοδο κύησης εννέα μηνών.

Αν και μεγάλος ο κοινός αλωπίας έχει σχετικά μικρά δόντια και ήρεμη συμπεριφορά, και γι'αυτό το λόγο δεν αποτελεί κίνδυνο για τον άνθρωπο. Ο κοινός αλωπίας θεωρείται εμπορικό είδος για το κρέας, το συκώτι και τα πτερύγιά του. Όμως ο κοινός αλωπίας δεν είναι βιώσιμο είδος όταν υπεραλιεύεται επειδή έχει μικρό ρυθμό αναπαραγωγής.

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Кадимки тулкуакула ( Kirghiz; Kyrgyz )

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Кадимки тулкуакула.
Alopias vulpinus distmap.png

Кадимки тулкуакула (лат. Alopias vulpinus) акулалардын бир түрү.

Колдонулган адабияттар

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Common thresher

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The common thresher (Alopias vulpinus), also known as Atlantic thresher, is the largest species of thresher shark, family Alopiidae, reaching some 6 m (20 ft) in length. About half of its length consists of the elongated upper lobe of its caudal fin. With a streamlined body, short pointed snout, and modestly sized eyes, the common thresher resembles (and has often been confused with) the pelagic thresher (A. pelagicus). It can be distinguished from the latter species by the white of its belly extending in a band over the bases of its pectoral fins. The common thresher is distributed worldwide in tropical and temperate waters, though it prefers cooler temperatures. It can be found both close to shore and in the open ocean, from the surface to a depth of 550 m (1,800 ft). It is seasonally migratory and spends summers at lower latitudes.

The long tail of the common thresher, the source of many fanciful tales through history, is used in a whip-like fashion to deliver incapacitating blows to its prey. This species feeds mainly on small schooling forage fishes such as herrings and anchovies. It is a fast, strong swimmer that has been known to leap clear of the water, and possesses physiological adaptations that allow it to maintain an internal body temperature warmer than that of the surrounding sea water. The common thresher has an aplacental viviparous mode of reproduction, with oophagous embryos that feed on undeveloped eggs ovulated by their mother. Females typically give birth to four pups at a time, following a gestation period of nine months.

Despite its size, the common thresher is minimally dangerous to humans due to its relatively small teeth and timid disposition. It is highly valued by commercial fishers for its meat, fins, hide, and liver oil; large numbers are taken by longline and gillnet fisheries throughout its range. This shark is also esteemed by recreational anglers for the exceptional fight it offers on hook-and-line. The common thresher has a low rate of reproduction and cannot withstand heavy fishing pressure for long, a case in point being the rapid collapse of the thresher shark fishery off California in the 1980s. With commercial exploitation increasing in many parts of the world, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed this species as vulnerable.

Taxonomy and phylogeny

Early illustration of a common thresher from Natural History of Victoria (1881)

The first scientific description of the common thresher, as Squalus vulpinus, was written by French naturalist Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre in the 1788 Tableau encyclopédique et méthodique des trois règnes de la nature.[5] In 1810, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque described Alopias macrourus from a thresher shark caught off Sicily. Later authors recognized the genus Alopias as valid, while synonymizing A. macrourus with S. vulpinus, thus the common thresher's scientific name became Alopias vulpinus.[3]

The specific epithet vulpinus is derived from the Latin vulpes meaning "fox", and in some older literature the species name was given incorrectly as Alopias vulpes.[6] "Fox shark" is the earliest known English name for this species and is rooted in classical antiquity, from a belief that it was especially cunning. In the mid-19th century, the name "fox" was mostly superseded by "thresher", referencing the shark's flail-like use of its tail. This species is often known simply as thresher shark or thresher; Henry Bigelow and William Schroeder introduced the name "common thresher" in 1945 to differentiate it from the bigeye thresher (A. superciliosus).[7] It is also known by many other common names, including Atlantic thresher, grayfish, green thresher, long-tailed shark, sea ape, sea fox, slasher, swiveltail, thintail thresher, thrasher shark, and whiptail shark.[3][8]

Morphological and allozyme analyses have agreed that the common thresher is basal to the clade formed by the bigeye thresher and the pelagic thresher (A. pelagicus).[3][6] The closest relative of this species within the family may be a fourth, unrecognized thresher shark species off Baja California, reported from allozyme evidence by Blaise Eitner in 1995.[9] However, the existence of this fourth species has yet to be confirmed by other sources.[1][3]

Description

The common thresher can be distinguished from other thresher sharks by the appearance of its head and the coloration above its pectoral fins.
Teeth

The common thresher is a fairly robust shark with a torpedo-shaped trunk and a short, broad head. The dorsal profile of the head curves evenly down to the pointed, conical snout. The eyes are moderately large and lack nictitating membranes. The small mouth is arched and, unlike in other thresher sharks, has furrows at the corners. The species has 32-53 upper and 25-50 lower tooth rows; the teeth are small, triangular, and smooth-edged, lacking lateral cusplets. The five pairs of gill slits are short, with the fourth and fifth pairs located over the pectoral fin bases.[3][6]

The long, falcate (sickle-shaped) pectoral fins taper to narrowly pointed tips. The first dorsal fin is tall and positioned slightly closer to the pectoral fins than the pelvic fins. The pelvic fins are almost as large as the first dorsal fin and bear long, thin claspers in males. The second dorsal and anal fins are tiny, with the former positioned ahead of the latter. Crescent-shaped notches occur on the caudal peduncle at the upper and lower origins of the caudal fin. The upper caudal fin lobe is enormously elongated as is characteristic of threshers, measuring about as long as the rest of the shark; the thin, gently curving lobe is held at a steep upward angle and has a notch in the trailing margin near the tip.[3][7]

The skin is covered by small, overlapping dermal denticles, each with three horizontal ridges and three to five marginal teeth. This species is metallic purplish brown to gray above, becoming more bluish on the flanks. The underside is white, which extends over the pectoral and pelvic fin bases; this pattern is in contrast to the pelagic thresher, which is solidly colored over these fins. The meeting line between the dorsal and ventral coloration is often irregular. A white spot may be seen at the tips of the pectoral fins.[3][7] The common thresher is the largest thresher shark species, commonly reaching 5 m (16 ft) long and 230 kg (510 lb) in weight.[10] The confirmed length record for this shark is 5.7 m (19 ft), while the maximum possible length may be 6.1–6.5 m (20–21 ft).[3] The heaviest individual on record is a 4.8 m (16 ft) female that weighed 510 kg (1,120 lb).[11]

Distribution

The range of the common thresher encompasses tropical and cold-temperate waters worldwide. In the western Atlantic, it is found from Newfoundland to the Gulf of Mexico,[12] though it is rare north of New England, and from Venezuela to Argentina. In the eastern Atlantic, it has been reported from the North Sea and the British Isles to Ghana (including Madeira, the Azores, and the Mediterranean and Black Seas), as well as from Angola to South Africa. In the Indo-Pacific, this species is known from Tanzania to India and the Maldives, Japan, and Korea to southeastern China, Sumatra, eastern Australia, and New Zealand; it also occurs around a number of Pacific islands including New Caledonia, the Society Islands, Tabuaeran, and the Hawaiian Islands. In the eastern Pacific, it has been recorded from British Columbia to Chile, including the Gulf of California.[1][3]

The common thresher is migratory, moving to higher latitudes following warm-water masses. In the eastern Pacific, males travel further than females, reaching as far as Vancouver Island in the late summer and early fall. Juveniles tend to remain in warm nursery areas.[6] In New Zealand waters juveniles can be found over the inner shelf around the North Island and around the upper South Island.[13] Separate populations with different life history characteristics apparently exist in the eastern Pacific and western Indian Ocean and possibly elsewhere; this species is not known to make transoceanic movements.[14] In the northwestern Indian Ocean, males and females segregate by location and depth during the pupping season from January to May.[10] Analysis of mitochondrial DNA has revealed substantial regional genetic variation within common threshers in all three oceans. This could support the idea that sharks from different areas, despite being highly mobile, rarely interbreed.[15]

Habitat

Common threshers are inhabitants of both continental waters and the open ocean. They tend to be most abundant in proximity to land, particularly the juveniles, which frequent near-coastal habitats such as bays.[3] The species has been described as "coastal–oceanic", mostly occurring within 30 km (20 mi) of the coast with considerably lower populations beyond this limit.[16] Most individuals are encountered near the surface, but this species has been recorded to at least a depth of 550 m (1,800 ft).[17] Among eight individuals tagged and tracked for 22–49 hours off southern California, all spent the majority of their time within 40 m (130 ft) of the water surface, but periodically dived much deeper, in five individuals to depths of around 100 m (330 ft) or more.[16] A study from the tropical Marshall Islands indicated that common threshers mainly spend the day at depths of about 160–240 m (520–790 ft) where the temperature is 18–20 °C (64–68 °F).[18] Common threshers appear to prefer water temperatures between 16 and 21 °C (61 and 70 °F), but at least occasionally occur down to around 9 °C (48 °F).[16]

Biology and ecology

Common threshers are active, strong swimmers, with infrequent reports of them leaping completely out of the water.[19] Like the fast-swimming sharks of the family Lamnidae, the common thresher has a strip of aerobic red muscle along its flank that is able to contract powerfully and efficiently for long periods of time.[20] In addition, they have slow-oxidative muscles centrally located within their bodies and a blood vessel countercurrent exchange system called the rete mirabile ("wonderful net"), allowing them to generate and retain body heat. The temperature inside the red muscles of a common thresher averages 2 °C (3.6 °F) above that of the ambient seawater, though significant individual variation is seen.[21] Unlike the pelagic and bigeye threshers, the common thresher lacks an orbital rete mirabile to protect its eyes and brain from temperature changes.[22]

Immature common threshers fall prey to larger sharks. Aside from observations of killer whales feeding on common threshers off New Zealand,[23] adults have no known natural predators. Parasites documented from the common thresher include the protozoan Giardia intestinalis,[24] the trematodes Campula oblonga (not usual host)[25] and Paronatrema vaginicola,[26] the tapeworms Acanthobothrium coronatum,[27] Anthobothrium laciniatum,[28] Crossobothrium angustum,[29] Hepatoxylon trichiuri, Molicola uncinatus,[30] Paraorygmatobothrium exiguum,[31] P. filiforme,[32] and Sphyriocephalus tergetinus,[33] and the copepods Dinemoura discrepans, Echthrogaleus denticulatus,[34] Gangliopus pyriformis,[35] Kroeyerina benzorum,[36] Nemesis aggregatus, N. robusta, N. tiburo,[37] Nesippus orientalis,[38] and Pandarus smithii.[34]

Feeding

The common thresher is often hooked by the tail, because it uses its long caudal fin to attack prey.

The long upper tailfin lobe of the common thresher is used to strike and incapacitate prey.

Some 97% of the common thresher's diet is composed of bony fishes, mostly small schooling forage fish such as mackerel, bluefish, herring, needlefish, and lanternfish. Before striking, the sharks compact schools of prey by swimming around them and splashing the water with their tails, often in pairs or small groups. Threshers are also known to take large, solitary fishes such as lancetfish, as well as squid and other pelagic invertebrates.[17] Off California, common threshers feed mostly on the northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax), with Pacific hake (Merluccius productus), Pacific sardine (Sardinops sagax), Pacific mackerel (Scomber japonicus), market squid (Loligo opalescens), and pelagic red crab (Pleuroncodes planipes) also being important food items. The sharks concentrate on a few prey species during cold-water years, but become less discriminating during less productive, warmer El Niño periods.[39]

Numerous accounts have been given of common threshers using the long upper lobes of their tail fins to stun prey, and they are often snagged on longlines by their tails after presumably striking at the bait. In July 1914, shark-watcher Russell J. Coles reported seeing a thresher shark use its tail to flip prey fish into its mouth, and that one fish that missed was thrown a "considerable distance". On April 14, 1923, noted oceanographer W.E. Allen observed a 2 m (6.6 ft) thresher shark pursuing a California smelt (Atherinopsis californiensis) off a pier at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. The shark overtook the small fish and swung its tail above the water like a "coachwhip" with "confusing speed", severely injuring its target. In the winter of 1865, Irish ichthyologist Harry Blake-Knox claimed to have seen a thresher shark in Dublin Bay use its tail to strike a wounded loon (probably a great northern diver, Gavia immer), which it then swallowed. Blake-Knox's account was subsequently disputed by other authorities, who asserted that the thresher's tail is not rigid or muscular enough to effect such a blow.[10]

Life history

Embryos of the common thresher are nourished by eggs during development.

Like other mackerel sharks, common threshers are aplacental viviparous. They give birth to litters of two to four (rarely six) pups in the eastern Pacific, and three to seven pups in the eastern Atlantic.[14] They are believed to reproduce throughout their range; one known nursery area is the Southern California Bight. Breeding occurs in the summer, usually July or August, and parturition occurs from March to June following a gestation period of nine months. The developing embryos are oophagous, feeding on eggs ovulated by the mother.[6] The teeth of small embryos are peg-like and nonfunctional, being covered by a sheath of soft tissues. As the embryos mature, their series of teeth become progressively more like those of adults in shape, though they remain depressed and hidden until shortly before birth.[40]

Newborn pups usually measure 114–160 cm (3.74–5.25 ft) long and weigh 5–6 kg (11–13 lb), depending on the size of the mother. The juveniles grow about 50 cm (1.6 ft) a year, while adults grow about 10 cm (0.33 ft) a year.[17] The size at maturation appears to vary between populations. In the eastern North Pacific, males mature at 3.3 m (11 ft) and five years old, and females around 2.6–4.5 m (8.5–14.8 ft) and seven years old. They are known to live to at least 15 years and their maximum lifespan has been estimated to be 45–50 years.[6][14]

Relationship with humans

While any large shark is capable of inflicting injury and thus merits respect, the common thresher poses little danger to humans. Most divers report that they are shy and difficult to approach under water. The International Shark Attack File lists a single provoked attack by the thresher shark and four attacks on boats, which were probably incidental from individuals fighting capture.

Commercial fishing

The thresher shark is taken commercially by many countries. Here a common thresher is hooked on a longline

The common thresher is widely caught by offshore longline and pelagic gillnet fisheries, especially in the northwestern Indian Ocean, the western, central, and eastern Pacific, and the North Atlantic. Participating countries include the former USSR, Japan, Taiwan, Spain, the United States, Brazil, Uruguay, and Mexico. The meat is highly prized for human consumption cooked, dried and salted, or smoked. In addition, their skin is made into leather, their liver oil is processed for vitamins, and their fins are used for shark fin soup. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization reported a worldwide common thresher take of 411 metric tons in 2006.[14]

In the United States, a drift gillnet fishery for the common thresher developed in southern California in 1977, beginning with 10 vessels experimenting with a larger-sized mesh. Within two years, the fleet had increased to 40 vessels, and the fishery peaked in 1982 when 228 vessels landed 1,091 metric tons. The common thresher population rapidly collapsed from overfishing, with landings decreasing to less than 300 metric tons a year by the late 1980s and larger size classes disappearing from the population.[14][41] Common threshers are still taken commercially in the United States, with about 85% coming from the Pacific and 15% from the Atlantic. The largest catches remain from the California-Oregon gillnet fishery, which had shifted its focus to the more valuable swordfish (Xiphias gladius), but still takes threshers as bycatch. Small numbers of Pacific threshers are also taken by harpoons, small-mesh driftnets, and longlines. In the Atlantic, threshers are primarily taken on longlines meant for swordfish and tuna.[42][43]

Recreational fishing

Common threshers are well regarded by sports fishers as one of the strongest fighting sharks alongside the shortfin mako shark (Isurus oxyrhinchus), and are ranked as game fish by the International Game Fish Association. They are pursued by anglers using rod and reel off California, South Africa, and elsewhere. Frank Mundus has called thresher sharks "exceedingly stubborn" and "pound for pound, a harder fish to whip" than the mako.[10] Fishing for the common thresher is similar to that for the mako; the recommended equipment is a 24 kg (53 lb) rod and a big-game reel holding at least 365 m (400 yd) of 24 kg (53 lb) line. The ideal method is trolling with baitfish, either deep or allowing it to drift.[44][45]

Conservation

NOAA researchers tagging a common thresher - such efforts are critical for developing conservation measures.

All three thresher shark species were reassessed from Data Deficient to Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature in 2007.[1] The rapid collapse of the Californian subpopulation (over 50% within three generations) prompted concerns regarding the species' susceptibility to overfishing in other areas, where fishery data are seldom reported and aspects of life history and population structure are little known.[1] In addition to continued fishing pressure, common threshers are also taken as bycatch in other gear such as bottom trawls and fish traps, and are considered a nuisance by mackerel fishers, as they become entangled in the nets.[14][17]

The United States manages common thresher fisheries by regulations such as commercial quotas and trip limits, and recreational minimum sizes and retention limits. Shark finning is illegal under U.S. federal law. The Atlantic common thresher fishery is regulated by the National Marine Fisheries Service Highly Migratory Species Management Division through the 2006 Consolidated Atlantic Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan (FMP), and the Pacific common thresher fishery is regulated by the Pacific Fishery Management Council through the FMP for U.S. West Coast Fisheries for Highly Migratory Species.[42][43] In the 1990s, after the depletion of common thresher stocks by the California gillnet fishery, the fleet was limited to 70 boats and restrictions were placed on season, operation range, and landings. Some evidence shows the California subpopulation is recovering, and the potential population growth rate has been estimated to be 4–7% per year.[41]

In New Zealand, the Department of Conservation has classified the common thresher shark as "Not Threatened" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System.[46]

Historical perceptions

The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE) wrote some of the earliest observations about the common thresher. In his Historia Animalia, he claimed that hooked threshers had a propensity for freeing themselves by biting through fishing lines, and that they protected their young by swallowing them. These "clever" behaviors, which have not been borne out by science, led the ancient Greeks to call it alopex (meaning "fox"), on which its modern scientific name is based.[10]

An oft-repeated myth about the common thresher is that they cooperate with swordfish to attack whales. In one version of events, the thresher shark circles the whale and distracts it by beating the sea to a froth with its tail, thereby allowing the swordfish to impale it in a vulnerable spot with its rostrum. In an alternate account, the swordfish positions itself beneath the whale, while the thresher leaps out of the water and lands on top of the whale, hammering it onto the swordfish's rostrum. Yet other authors describe the thresher "cutting huge gashes" in the side of the whale with its tail. Neither threshers nor swordfish, however, are known to feed on whales or indeed possess the dentition to do so. The story may have arisen from mariners mistaking the tall dorsal fins of killer whales, which do attack large cetaceans, for thresher shark tails. Swordfish bills have also been found embedded in blue and fin whales (likely accidents due to the fast-moving fish's inertia), and thresher sharks do exhibit some of the aforementioned behaviors independent of whales.[10][47]

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  43. ^ a b Pacific Common Thresher Shark. FishWatch - U.S. Seafood Facts. Retrieved December 23, 2008.
  44. ^ Cacutt, L. (2000). The Big-Game Fishing Handbook. Stackpole Books. ISBN 0-8117-2673-8.
  45. ^ Rudow, L. (2006). Rudow's Guide to Fishing the Mid Atlantic: Coastal Bays and Ocean. Geared Up Publications. ISBN 0-9787278-0-0.
  46. ^ Duffy, Clinton A. J.; Francis, Malcolm; Dunn, M. R.; Finucci, Brit; Ford, Richard; Hitchmough, Rod; Rolfe, Jeremy (2016). Conservation status of New Zealand chondrichthyans (chimaeras, sharks and rays), 2016 (PDF). Wellington, New Zealand: Department of Conservation. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-988514-62-8. OCLC 1042901090.
  47. ^ Wood, W. (2008). Adventures with Big Fish - Big Game Fishing and Whaling. Read Books. ISBN 978-1-4437-3729-6.

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Common thresher: Brief Summary

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The common thresher (Alopias vulpinus), also known as Atlantic thresher, is the largest species of thresher shark, family Alopiidae, reaching some 6 m (20 ft) in length. About half of its length consists of the elongated upper lobe of its caudal fin. With a streamlined body, short pointed snout, and modestly sized eyes, the common thresher resembles (and has often been confused with) the pelagic thresher (A. pelagicus). It can be distinguished from the latter species by the white of its belly extending in a band over the bases of its pectoral fins. The common thresher is distributed worldwide in tropical and temperate waters, though it prefers cooler temperatures. It can be found both close to shore and in the open ocean, from the surface to a depth of 550 m (1,800 ft). It is seasonally migratory and spends summers at lower latitudes.

The long tail of the common thresher, the source of many fanciful tales through history, is used in a whip-like fashion to deliver incapacitating blows to its prey. This species feeds mainly on small schooling forage fishes such as herrings and anchovies. It is a fast, strong swimmer that has been known to leap clear of the water, and possesses physiological adaptations that allow it to maintain an internal body temperature warmer than that of the surrounding sea water. The common thresher has an aplacental viviparous mode of reproduction, with oophagous embryos that feed on undeveloped eggs ovulated by their mother. Females typically give birth to four pups at a time, following a gestation period of nine months.

Despite its size, the common thresher is minimally dangerous to humans due to its relatively small teeth and timid disposition. It is highly valued by commercial fishers for its meat, fins, hide, and liver oil; large numbers are taken by longline and gillnet fisheries throughout its range. This shark is also esteemed by recreational anglers for the exceptional fight it offers on hook-and-line. The common thresher has a low rate of reproduction and cannot withstand heavy fishing pressure for long, a case in point being the rapid collapse of the thresher shark fishery off California in the 1980s. With commercial exploitation increasing in many parts of the world, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed this species as vulnerable.

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Alopias vulpinus ( Spanish; Castilian )

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El tiburón azotador, zorro marino o pez zorro (Alopias vulpinus) es una especie de elasmobranquio lamniforme de la familia Alopiidae.[2]​ Su extraordinaria cola mide casi tanto como el resto de su cuerpo. El lóbulo inferior de la cola es pequeño, pero el superior es muy largo, arqueado y terminado en punta. Se alimenta, en solitario o en grupo, de banco de peces. Usa la cola a modo de látigo que sacude de un lado a otro para rodear o herir a sus presas. Cuando nada cerca de la superficie, a veces derriba con la cola aves marinas que vuelan bajo. La hembra pare hasta 4 crías de una sola vez; produce más embriones, pero algunas crías se comen a las otras cuando todavía están dentro de la madre.

Galería

Curiosidades

El retórico romano (del siglo II d.c.) Claudio Eliano dedica una breve historia a hablar sobre el tiburón zorro en el Libro I de su obra Sobre la naturaleza de los animales (en griego: Περὶ ζῴων ἰδιότητος Perí zóon idiótitos; en latín: De Natura Animalium o Historia animalium). Éste dice que también se le conoce a este animal como "devorador". Habla de sus potentes mandíbulas y filas de dientes. Cuenta que destroza sin esfuerzo todo que encuentra a su alcance, de modo que si es presa de un anzuelo, intenta romper la línea en lugar de intentar huir. Dice también que suelen atacar en conjunto a grupos de delfines hasta separar del grupo a su presa; cada tiburón zorro marcha con su trozo que ha podido separar de su presa y deja los restos. Sobre su pesca, comenta que los pescadores ponen a sus anzuelos unos mangos especiales de metal que, igualmente, el tiburón es capaz de romper.

Bibliografía

Claudio Eliano (1988). Historia de los animales (selección). Ediciones Orbis. Barcelona. ISBN 84-85471-65-2.

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Alopias vulpinus: Brief Summary ( Spanish; Castilian )

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El tiburón azotador, zorro marino o pez zorro (Alopias vulpinus) es una especie de elasmobranquio lamniforme de la familia Alopiidae.​ Su extraordinaria cola mide casi tanto como el resto de su cuerpo. El lóbulo inferior de la cola es pequeño, pero el superior es muy largo, arqueado y terminado en punta. Se alimenta, en solitario o en grupo, de banco de peces. Usa la cola a modo de látigo que sacude de un lado a otro para rodear o herir a sus presas. Cuando nada cerca de la superficie, a veces derriba con la cola aves marinas que vuelan bajo. La hembra pare hasta 4 crías de una sola vez; produce más embriones, pero algunas crías se comen a las otras cuando todavía están dentro de la madre.

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Alopias vulpinus ( Basque )

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Alopias vulpinus Alopias generoko animalia da. Arrainen barruko Actinopterygii klasean sailkatzen da, Alopiidae familian.

Erreferentziak

  1. (Ingelesez) FishBase

Ikus, gainera

(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.log.warn("Gadget "ErrefAurrebista" was not loaded. Please migrate it to use ResourceLoader. See u003Chttps://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berezi:Gadgetaku003E.");});
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Alopias vulpinus: Brief Summary ( Basque )

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Alopias vulpinus Alopias generoko animalia da. Arrainen barruko Actinopterygii klasean sailkatzen da, Alopiidae familian.

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Kettuhai ( Finnish )

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Kettuhai (Alopias vulpinus) on valtamerten trooppisissa ja lauhkeissa osissa elävä noin kuuden metrin pituinen hai, jonka pyrstöevän ylälohko on yhtä pitkä kuin muu ruumis. Pyrstönsä avulla se ajaa pieniä kaloja tiiviiksi parveksi ja käyttää sitä lyömäaseena kalojen tainnuttamiseen.[2] Yleensä kettuhait oleilevat ulapalla mutta voivat varsinkin kesällä saalistaa rannikollakin.

Lähteet

  1. Goldman, K.J., Baum, J., Cailliet, G.M., Cortés, E., Kohin, S., Macías, D., Megalofonou, P., Perez, M., Soldo, A. & Trejo, T.: Alopias vulpinus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.1. 2009. International Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN, Iucnredlist.org. Viitattu 01.08.2013. (englanniksi)
  2. Jani Kaaro: Tutkimus: Kettuhaiden viikatepyrstö on tainnuttava lyömäase Helsingin Sanomat. 19.7.2013. Viitattu 15.7.2017.

Aiheesta muualla

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Kettuhai: Brief Summary ( Finnish )

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Kettuhai (Alopias vulpinus) on valtamerten trooppisissa ja lauhkeissa osissa elävä noin kuuden metrin pituinen hai, jonka pyrstöevän ylälohko on yhtä pitkä kuin muu ruumis. Pyrstönsä avulla se ajaa pieniä kaloja tiiviiksi parveksi ja käyttää sitä lyömäaseena kalojen tainnuttamiseen. Yleensä kettuhait oleilevat ulapalla mutta voivat varsinkin kesällä saalistaa rannikollakin.

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Requin-renard commun ( French )

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Alopias vulpinus

Le Requin-renard commun ou Renard de mer commun (Alopias vulpinus) est une espèce de requins de la famille des Alopiidés. Il atteint près de 6 mètres de long dont la moitié environ se compose du lobe supérieur de sa nageoire caudale. Avec un corps fuselé, des yeux de taille modeste et un museau court et pointu, il peut être confondu avec le Requin-renard pélagique (A. pelagicus). Le Requin-renard commun vit dans les eaux tropicales et tempérées du monde entier, mais il préfère les températures fraîches. Il peut être observé près du rivage ainsi qu'en pleine mer, depuis la surface jusqu'à une profondeur de 550 mètres. C'est un migrateur saisonnier qui passe ses étés sous les basses latitudes.

La longue nageoire caudale du Requin-renard commun est à l'origine de nombreux contes fantaisistes. En réalité, il l'utilise comme un fouet pour assommer ses proies. Cette espèce se nourrit principalement de petits poissons vivant en bancs tels que les harengs et les anchois. C'est un bon nageur, capable de bondir hors de l'eau. Il possède des capacités physiologiques qui lui permettent de maintenir une température interne plus chaude que celle de l'eau de mer environnante. Le Requin-renard commun est vivipare aplacentaire, avec des embryons oophages, qui se nourrissent des œufs sous-développés ovulés par leur mère. Les femelles donnent généralement naissance à quatre individus à la fois, après une période de gestation de neuf mois.

Malgré sa taille, le Requin-renard commun est très peu dangereux pour les humains en raison de ses dents relativement petites et de son caractère timide. Il est très apprécié par les pêcheurs commerciaux pour ses tissus musculaires, ses ailerons, sa peau et l'huile de son foie ; il est pêché à la palangre et au filet maillant. Ce requin est également apprécié des pêcheurs sportifs pour la lutte exceptionnelle qu'il offre au crochet et à la ligne. Le Requin-renard commun a un faible taux de reproduction et il ne peut pas résister à la pression de la surpêche, comme le montre l'effondrement rapide des prises au large de la Californie dans les années 1980. Du fait de l'exploitation commerciale croissante dans de nombreuses parties du monde, l'Union internationale pour la conservation de la nature (UICN) considère cette espèce comme « vulnérable ».

Description

 src=
Le Requin-renard commun peut être distingué des autres requins-renards par l'aspect de sa tête et la coloration sous ses nageoires pectorales.

Le Requin-renard commun est un requin assez robuste avec un tronc en forme de torpille et une tête large et courte. Le profil dorsal de la tête présente une courbure uniforme vers le bas avec un rostre pointu et conique. Les yeux sont modérément grands et n'ont pas de membrane nictitante. La petite bouche est arquée et, contrairement à d'autres requins-renards, a des sillons dans les coins. Les dents sont petites, triangulaires, et à bords lisses, sans cuspides latérales. Il a 32 à 53 rangées de dents inférieures et 25 à 50 rangées de dents supérieures. Les cinq paires de fentes branchiales sont courtes, avec les quatrième et cinquième paires situées à la base des nageoires pectorales[1],[2].

Les longues nageoires pectorales falciformes se terminent en pointe. La première nageoire dorsale est grande et placée un peu plus près des nageoires pectorales que les nageoires pelviennes. Les nageoires pelviennes sont presque aussi grandes que la première nageoire dorsale et possèdent de longs ptérygopodes minces chez les mâles. La deuxième nageoire dorsale et les nageoires anales sont très petites. Il a des encoches en forme de croissant sur le pédoncule caudal à l'origine supérieure et inférieure de la nageoire caudale. Le lobe supérieur de la caudale est très allongé, ce qui est caractéristique des requins-renards. Ce lobe supérieur est, à lui seul, aussi grand que le reste du requin. Le lobe, légèrement incurvé, présente un angle abrupt vers le haut et a une encoche dans la marge arrière près de la pointe[1],[3].

La peau est recouverte de petits denticules dermiques qui se chevauchent, chacun avec trois arêtes horizontales et trois à cinq dents marginales. Cette espèce est gris métallique, allant vers le bleu sur les flancs. Le dessous est blanc et cette couleur s'étend à la base des nageoires pectorales et pelviennes ; cela le distingue du Requin-renard pélagique, lequel est coloré jusqu'aux nageoires pectorales[1],[3]. La ligne de rencontre entre la coloration dorsale et ventrale est souvent irrégulière. Il peut y avoir une tache blanche à l'extrémité des nageoires pectorales. Le Requin-renard commun est la plus grande espèce de requin-renard, il peut communément atteindre 5 mètres de long pour un poids de 230 kg[4]. Le record de longueur confirmé est de 5,7 mètres, tandis que la longueur maximale théorique déduite de la courbe de croissance serait de 6,1 à 6,5 mètres[1]. Le spécimen le plus lourd connu est une femelle de 4,8 mètres qui pesait 510 kg[5],[6].

Répartition et habitat

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Répartition confirmée (bleu foncé) et suspectée (bleu clair) du Requin-renard commun.

La répartition du Requin-renard commun englobe toutes les eaux tropicales et tempérées froides. Dans l'Atlantique Ouest, il vit de Terre-Neuve au golfe du Mexique, bien qu'il soit rare au sud de la Nouvelle-Angleterre, et du Venezuela à l'Argentine. Dans l'Atlantique Est, on le trouve de la mer du Nord et les îles Britanniques vers le Ghana (y compris Madère, les Açores, la Méditerranée et la mer Noire), ainsi que de l'Angola à l'Afrique du Sud. Dans la région Indo-Pacifique, cette espèce est connue de la Tanzanie jusqu'à l'Inde et les Maldives, le Japon et la Corée au sud-est de la Chine, de Sumatra et de l'Australie, et la Nouvelle-Zélande. Il vit également sur un certain nombre d'îles du Pacifique, comme la Nouvelle-Calédonie, les îles de la Société, Tabuaeran et les îles hawaïennes. Dans le Pacifique occidental, il a été observé en Colombie-Britannique, au Chili et dans le golfe de Californie[7],[1],[8].

Le Requin-renard commun est un grand migrateur, il se déplace vers les hautes latitudes en suivant les masses d'eaux chaudes. Dans le Pacifique Est, les mâles vont plus loin que les femelles, allant jusqu'à l'île de Vancouver à la fin de l'été et au début de l'automne. Les juvéniles ont tendance à rester dans les zones chaudes[2]. Il semble y avoir des populations séparées avec des cycles biologiques différents dans le Pacifique Est et l'Ouest de l'océan Indien et peut-être ailleurs. Cette espèce ne semble pas faire de déplacements transocéaniques[9]. Dans le nord-ouest de l'océan Indien, les mâles et les femelles se séparent en fréquentant un emplacement et une profondeur différente au cours de la saison de mise bas (janvier à mai)[4]. L'analyse de l'ADN mitochondrial a révélé une importante variation génétique régionale au sein des populations de Requin-renard commun dans les trois océans. Cela pourrait confirmer l'idée que, quoiqu’étant très mobiles, les requins des différentes régions se croisent rarement[10].

Le Requin-renard commun vit dans les eaux continentales et en pleine mer. Il a tendance à être plus abondant à proximité des terres, en particulier les jeunes qui fréquentent le littoral, notamment les baies[1]. La plupart des individus fréquentent les eaux de surface, mais cette espèce peut aller jusqu'à au moins 550 m de profondeur[11].

Biologie

 src=
Le lobe supérieur de la nageoire caudale du requin renard commun est très allongé.

Le Requin-renard commun est un nageur endurant et rapide, il peut même bondir complètement hors de l'eau[12]. Comme les requins de la famille des lamnidés, il dispose d'une bande de muscle rouge aérobie le long de son flanc capable de se contracter fortement et efficacement pendant de longues périodes[13]. En outre, le Requin-renard commun possède des fibres musculaires oxydatives lentes et un système de vaisseaux sanguins d'échange à contre-courant appelé rete mirabile, lui permettant de générer et de conserver la chaleur de leur corps. La température à l'intérieur des muscles atteint en moyenne 2 °C de plus que celle de l'eau de mer ambiante, bien qu'il y ait d'importantes variations individuelles[14]. Contrairement au Requin-renard pélagique et au Thon obèse, le Requin-renard commun n'a pas de rete mirabile orbitale pour protéger ses yeux et son cerveau des variations de température[15].

Les individus immatures sont des proies faciles pour les grands requins matures, comme le Grand requin blanc. Mis à part les observations d'orques se nourrissant d'adultes au large de la Nouvelle-Zélande, on ne connaît pas de prédateurs naturels[16]. Les parasites documentés du Requin-renard commun comprennent le protozoaire Giardia intestinalis[17], les trématodes Campula oblonga[18] (hôte inhabituel) et Paronatrema vaginicola[19], le ténia Acanthobothrium coronatum[20], Anthobothrium laciniatum[21], Crossobothrium angustum[22], Hepatoxylon trichiuri, Molicola uncinatus[23], Paraorygmatobothrium exiguum[24], P. filiforme[25], Sphyriocephalus tergetinus [26] et les copépodes Dinemoura discrepans, Echthrogaleus denticulatus[27] , Gangliopus pyriformis[28] , Kroeyerina benzorum[29], Nemesis aggregatus, N. robusta, N. tiburo[30], Nesippus orientalis[31] et Pandarus smithii[27].

Alimentation

 src=
Le Requin-renard commun est souvent pêché par sa nageoire caudale, car il l'utilise pour attaquer ses proies, elles-mêmes prises dans les filets.

Le long lobe supérieur de la nageoire caudale du Requin-renard commun est utilisé pour frapper et neutraliser les proies[32]. Quelque 97 % du régime alimentaire du Requin-renard commun est composé de poissons osseux, la plupart des petits poissons vivant en banc comme les maquereaux, le tassergal, les harengs, les orphies et les poissons-lanternes. Avant de frapper, les requins, souvent à deux ou en petits groupes, compactent le banc de proies en nageant autour d'eux et en frappant l'eau avec leur queue. L'animal est également capable de chasser de grands poissons solitaires comme les cavalos, ainsi que les calmars et autres invertébrés pélagiques. Au large de la Californie, le Requin-renard commun se nourrit principalement d'Anchois de Californie, du Merlu du Pacifique nord, du Pilchard de Californie, du Maquereau espagnol, du Calmar opale et de Galathée pélagique. Il se concentre sur quelques espèces lorsqu'il est en eaux froides, mais devient moins exigeant durant les périodes plus chaudes d'El Niño[33].

De nombreuses observations ont montré que le Requin-renard commun utilise le long lobe supérieur de sa nageoire caudale pour assommer ses proies, preuve en est qu'ils sont souvent accrochés à la palangre par leur queue, après avoir sans doute enlevé l'appât. En juillet 1914, le biologiste marin Russell J. Coles a rapporté avoir vu un Requin-renard commun utiliser sa queue pour faire basculer des poissons dans sa bouche, et qu'un poisson a été jeté à une « distance considérable ». Le 14 avril 1923, l'océanographe W.E. Allen a observé un spécimen poursuivant un Éperlan de Californie près d'une jetée de la Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Le requin a dépassé le poisson et a balancé sa queue au-dessus de l'eau comme un fouet à une vitesse fulgurante, blessant gravement sa proie. Pendant l'hiver 1865, l'ichtyologiste irlandais Harry Blake-Knox a prétendu avoir vu un requin-renard dans la baie de Dublin utiliser sa queue pour frapper un Plongeon huard blessé, qu'il a ensuite avalé. Cette observation fut contestée par d'autres autorités qui ont affirmé que la queue du renard n'est pas rigide ou assez musclée pour effectuer un tel coup[4]; .

Cycle de vie

 src=
Les embryons du Requin-renard se nourrissent des œufs ovulés par leur génitrice pendant leur développement.

Comme d'autres lamniformes, le Requin-renard commun est vivipare aplacentaire. Il donne naissance à des portées de deux à quatre (rarement six) individus dans le Pacifique oriental et de trois à sept dans l'Atlantique Est[9]. Il se reproduit dans toute son aire de répartition, mais des zones de reproduction sont connues telle celle au sud de la Californie. L'accouplement a lieu en été, généralement en juillet ou août et la parturition a lieu de mars à juin, après une période de gestation de neuf mois. Les embryons en développement sont oophages ; ils se nourrissent d'œufs ovulés par la génitrice[2]. Les dents des petits embryons sont en forme de tenon et non-fonctionnelles, étant recouvertes par une gaine de tissus mous. Au fur et à mesure que les embryons grandissent, leurs dents deviennent progressivement comme celles des adultes, même si elles restent cachées jusqu'à peu de temps avant la naissance[34].

Les nouveau-nés mesurent généralement 114 à 160 cm de long et pèsent 5 à 6 kg, en fonction de la taille de la mère. Les juvéniles croissent d'environ 50 cm par an tandis que les adultes croissent d'environ 10 cm par an. La taille à maturité semble varier entre les populations. Dans l'est du Pacifique Nord, l'âge adulte est atteint à cinq ans chez les mâles pour une taille de 3,3 m et à sept ans chez les femelles pour une taille de 2,6 à 4,5 m. Il vit au moins 15 ans et sa durée de vie maximale est estimée à 45 à 50 ans[2],[9].

Taxinomie et phylogénie

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Illustration d'un Requin-renard commun dans Natural history of Victoria (1881).

C'est le naturaliste français Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre qui décrit le Requin-renard commun sous le nom Squalus vulpinus dans le Tableau encyclopédique et méthodique des trois règnes de la nature en 1788[35]. En 1810, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque décrit Alopias macrourus à partir d'un spécimen capturé au large de la Sicile. Plus tard, les auteurs reconnaissent le genre Alopias comme valide et A. macrourus comme un synonyme de S. vulpinus, le nom scientifique devient donc Alopias vulpinus[1].

Les analyses morphologiques et des allozymes montrent que le Requin-renard commun est à la base du clade formé par le Requin-renard à gros yeux (Alopias superciliosus) et le Requin-renard pélagique (Alopias pelagicus)[1],[2]. Blaise Eitner suggère en 1995 que le plus proche parent de cette espèce au sein de la famille est peut-être une quatrième espèce non reconnue de requin-renard au large de la péninsule de Basse-Californie d'après des analyses des allozymes[36]. Toutefois, aucune preuve de son existence n'a été révélée lors d'analyses d'ADN mitochondrial réalisées en 2004[7],[1].

Étymologie et dénominations

L'épithète spécifique « vulpinus » dérive du latin « vulpes » signifiant « renard » et, dans certains ouvrages anciens, le nom scientifique est orthographié à tort Alopias vulpes. Le philosophe grec Aristote (384-322 avant notre ère) a écrit quelques-unes des premières observations sur le Requin-renard commun. Dans son Histoire des animaux, il affirme que ces requins ont une propension à se libérer des lignes de pêche en les mordant et qu'ils protègent leur progéniture en les avalant. Ces comportements « intelligents », qui n'ont pas été confirmés par la science, ont conduit les Grecs de l'Antiquité à l'appeler alopex (signifiant « renard »), sur lequel se fonde son nom scientifique[4].

« Requin-renard » est le plus ancien nom connu pour cette espèce mais il est également désigné par beaucoup d'autres noms communs, comme « Renard de mer commun », « Requin batteur », « Poisson-épée », « Singe de mer », « Faux » et « Faucheur »[6],[37].

Le Requin-renard commun et l'homme

Bien que tout grand requin soit capable d'infliger des blessures, le Requin-renard commun représente peu de danger pour les humains. La plupart des plongeurs signalent qu'ils sont timides et difficiles à approcher. L'International Shark Attack File répertorie une seule attaque de Requin-renard commun sur l'homme et quatre attaques sur des bateaux, probablement provoquées par des individus luttant contre leur capture. La seule attaque d'un être humain est issue d'un rapport peu crédible parlant d'un spécimen qui aurait agressé un pêcheur subaquatique au large de la Nouvelle-Zélande[4].

Le célèbre pêcheur Frank Mundus, dans son livre Sportsfishing for Sharks, raconte qu'un pêcheur à la palangre au large de la Caroline, penché sur le côté de son bateau pour examiner quelque chose de grand qu'il avait hameçonné, a été décapité par la nageoire caudale d'un Requin-renard commun d'environ cinq mètres de long. Le pêcheur est censé être tombé à l'eau et n'a jamais été retrouvé. Ce récit est considéré comme hautement improbable par la plupart des scientifiques[4].

Pêche commerciale

 src=
Un Requin-renard commun accroché à une palangre.

La chair du Requin-renard commun est l'une des plus appréciées notamment pour sa bonne qualité, il est donc le mieux représenté dans les pêcheries commerciales d'espèces grandes migratrices de la côte ouest des États-Unis. Ses ailerons sont particulièrement demandés pour la soupe aux ailerons de requin, il fait ainsi l'objet du shark finning[38].

Le Requin-renard commun est couramment pêché à la palangre et au filet maillant, en particulier dans le nord-ouest de l'océan Indien, en Europe occidentale, centrale et orientale, dans le Pacifique et dans l'Atlantique Nord. Les principaux pays comprennent ceux de l'ex-URSS, le Japon, Taïwan, l'Espagne, les États-Unis, le Brésil, l'Uruguay et le Mexique. Sa chair est très prisée pour la consommation humaine. Elle est consommée cuite, séchée et salée ou fumée, sa peau est utilisée comme cuir, son huile de foie est réputée pour ses vitamines et ses nageoires sont utilisées pour la soupe d'ailerons de requin. Selon l'Organisation des Nations unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture (FAO), 411 tonnes de Requin-renard commun ont été pêchées en 2006[9].

Aux États-Unis, une pêche aux filets dérivants du Requin-renard commun s'est développée dans le sud de la Californie en 1977, avec dix navires avec un maillage de grande taille. Dans les deux ans qui ont suivi la flotte a augmenté de quarante navires et la pêche a atteint son sommet en 1982, lorsque 228 navires débarquaient 1 091 tonnes par an. La population de Requin-renard commun s'est rapidement effondrée à cause de la surpêche, avec une diminution des débarquements à moins de 300 tonnes par an à la fin des années 1980 et la disparition des individus de grande taille[9],[39]. Les Requins-renards communs sont toujours prisés dans le commerce aux États-Unis, avec environ 85 % en provenance du Pacifique et 15 % de l'Atlantique[40],[41]. Les plus importantes captures ont lieu en Californie et en Oregon, au filet maillant ; la pêche a tourné son attention vers l'espadon, mais le Requin-renard commun fait l'objet de prises accessoires. Un petit nombre est également pêché au harpon, aux filets dérivants à petites mailles et à la palangre. Dans l'Atlantique, le Requin-renard commun est principalement capturé à la palangre, destinée à l'origine à l'espadon et au thon[40],[41].

Pêche sportive

Le Requin-renard commun est apprécié par les pêcheurs sportifs pour sa force semblable à celle du Requin mako[4]. Il est chassé par les pêcheurs utilisant la canne en Californie, en Afrique du Sud et ailleurs. Le pêcheur Frank Mundus a qualifié le Requin-renard commun de poisson « extrêmement tenace » et « un des poissons les plus difficiles ». L'équipement recommandé est une tige de 24 kg et une bobine d'au moins 365 m. La méthode idéale est la pêche à la traîne avec des poissons-appâts, soit en profondeur, soit avec un appât dérivant[42],[43].

Conservation

 src=
Des chercheurs de la NOAA marquent un Requin-renard commun ; ces efforts sont essentiels pour l'élaboration de mesures de conservation.

Les trois espèces de requins-renards ont été réévaluées du statut « données insuffisantes » (DD) au statut « vulnérable » (VU) par l'Union internationale pour la conservation de la nature (UICN) en 2007. La surpêche a un fort impact sur les requins-renards en raison de leur croissance lente, de leur maturité tardive (4 à 14 ans), de leur longue gestation (9 à 12 mois) et leurs petites portées (2 à 4 par portée). L'effondrement rapide de la sous-population californienne (plus de 50 % en trois générations) a suscité des inquiétudes quant à la sensibilité de cette espèce à la surpêche dans d'autres endroits, où les données de la pêche sont rarement signalées et les aspects de sa biologie et de la structure de la population sont peu connus. En plus de la pression de la pêche continue, le Requin-renard commun est également pêché accidentellement notamment par des chaluts de fond et des nasses et est considéré comme une nuisance par les pêcheurs de maquereau car il s'emmêle dans les filets[15],[44],[11].

Aux États-Unis, la pêche du Requin-renard commun est réglementée par des quotas commerciaux limitant les prises, fixant les tailles minimales de loisirs et les limites de rétention. Le shark finning est illégal en vertu la loi fédérale américaine. La pêche du Requin-renard commun de l'Atlantique est régie par la National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) qui s'occupe de la gestion des espèces de grands migrateurs à travers le 2006 Consolidated Atlantic Highly Migratory Species (HMS) et le Fishery Management Plan (FMP). La pêche dans le Pacifique est, quant à elle, régie par le Pacific Fishery Management Council à travers le Fishery Management Plan (FMP) pour le U.S. West Coast Fisheries for Highly Migratory Species (HMS)[41],[40]. Dans les années 1990, après l'épuisement des stocks de Requin-renard commun par la pêche au filet maillant en Californie, la flotte a été limitée à 70 bateaux et des restrictions ont été imposées sur la saison, la plage de fonctionnement et les débarquements. Il est prouvé que la sous-population de Californie se redresse et le taux potentiel de croissance de la population a été estimée à 4 à 7 % par an[39].

Annexes

Références taxinomiques

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Requin-renard commun: Brief Summary ( French )

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Alopias vulpinus

Le Requin-renard commun ou Renard de mer commun (Alopias vulpinus) est une espèce de requins de la famille des Alopiidés. Il atteint près de 6 mètres de long dont la moitié environ se compose du lobe supérieur de sa nageoire caudale. Avec un corps fuselé, des yeux de taille modeste et un museau court et pointu, il peut être confondu avec le Requin-renard pélagique (A. pelagicus). Le Requin-renard commun vit dans les eaux tropicales et tempérées du monde entier, mais il préfère les températures fraîches. Il peut être observé près du rivage ainsi qu'en pleine mer, depuis la surface jusqu'à une profondeur de 550 mètres. C'est un migrateur saisonnier qui passe ses étés sous les basses latitudes.

La longue nageoire caudale du Requin-renard commun est à l'origine de nombreux contes fantaisistes. En réalité, il l'utilise comme un fouet pour assommer ses proies. Cette espèce se nourrit principalement de petits poissons vivant en bancs tels que les harengs et les anchois. C'est un bon nageur, capable de bondir hors de l'eau. Il possède des capacités physiologiques qui lui permettent de maintenir une température interne plus chaude que celle de l'eau de mer environnante. Le Requin-renard commun est vivipare aplacentaire, avec des embryons oophages, qui se nourrissent des œufs sous-développés ovulés par leur mère. Les femelles donnent généralement naissance à quatre individus à la fois, après une période de gestation de neuf mois.

Malgré sa taille, le Requin-renard commun est très peu dangereux pour les humains en raison de ses dents relativement petites et de son caractère timide. Il est très apprécié par les pêcheurs commerciaux pour ses tissus musculaires, ses ailerons, sa peau et l'huile de son foie ; il est pêché à la palangre et au filet maillant. Ce requin est également apprécié des pêcheurs sportifs pour la lutte exceptionnelle qu'il offre au crochet et à la ligne. Le Requin-renard commun a un faible taux de reproduction et il ne peut pas résister à la pression de la surpêche, comme le montre l'effondrement rapide des prises au large de la Californie dans les années 1980. Du fait de l'exploitation commerciale croissante dans de nombreuses parties du monde, l'Union internationale pour la conservation de la nature (UICN) considère cette espèce comme « vulnérable ».

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Raposo do mar ( Galician )

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Raposo do mar,[2][3][4] raposo de mar,[5] peixe raposo,[2] tiburón raposo [6] ou simplemente raposo,[2][6] camarín [2][4] ou golpe [4] son, entre outros, os nomes cos que se coñece en galego a especie Alopias vulpinus, peixe cartilaxinoso elasmobranquio da orde dos lamniformes (Lamniformes), familia dos alopíidos —tamén grafada alópidos— (Alopiidae) integrante do xénero Alopias, único co que conta dita familia,[7] especie caracterizada pola súa extraordinaria cola, que mide case tanto como o resto do corpo.

Etimoloxía

O nome do xénero, Alopias, deriva go grego ἀλώπηξ alópex, "raposo".[8] O específo, vulpinus ("raposuno", "arraposado") do latín vulpēs, -is, "raposo".

Clasificación

Taxonomía

Familia Alopiidae Bonaparte, 1838

  • Xénero Alopias Rafinesque, 1810
    • Alopias pelagicus H. Nakamura, 1935
    • Alopias superciliosus R. T. Lowe, 1841
    • Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre, 1788)

Filoxenia

Cladograma da filoxenia da familia Alopiidae [9][10]

   

Megachasmidae

    voidAlopiidaevoid  

A. vulpinus

     

Alopias sp non descritas

     

A. superciliosus

   

A. pelagicus

           

Cetorhinidae

   

Lamnidae

       

Características do raposo de mar

 src=
Peixe raposo.
 src=
O enorme lóbulo superior da aleta caudal do peixe raposo.
 src=
Alopias pelagicus.
 src=
Distribución de Alopias pelagicus.
 src=
Alopias superciliosus.
 src=
Alopias superciliosus.
 src=
Distribución de Alopias superciliosus.

As principais características do raposo do mar son:[3][4]

  • A principal característica, que fai a esta especie inconfundíbel, é a lonxitude extraordinaria do lobo superior da súa aleta cuadal, algo recurvado cara a abaixo e rematado en punta, que é case igual á do resto do corpo; pola contra, o lobo inferior é moi pequeno.
  • O corpo é máis ou menos cilíndrico, forte, e co pedúnculo caudal moi delgado e sen quillas laterais, aínda que con fendeduras precuadais. Estes animais poden medir (as femias) até 5 m ou máis (a lonxitude máxima rexistrada foi de 5,49 m), estando os machos adultos comunmente entre os 3,19 e os 4,20 m, e as femias entre os 3,76 e os 5,49.
  • A cabeza é pequena, co fociño curto e arredondado no seu extremo, con ollos relativamente grandes e sen estrías sobre as fendeduras branquiais, aínda que con engurras labiais. Ten 5 fendeduras branquiais, a terceira das cales está xusto enriba da orixe das aletas pectorais.
  • A boca, ventral, é relativamente pequena, armada de dentes pequenos, case triangulares e cos bordos rugosos, dispostos en 29 fileiras en cada maxilar.
  • Presenta dúas aletas dorsais, a primeira na metade do lombo, e a segunda, moi pequena, situada no comezo do pedúnculo caudal, á altura da aleta anal, tamén pequena. As aletas pectorais son longas, relativamente anchas e rematadas en punta.
  • A coloración do dorso é cincenta azulada, contrastando coa branca brillante da rexión ventral.

Historia natural do raposo de mar

  • É unha especie costeira que vive nas plataformas continentais e insulares, e epipeláxico cando vive en mar aberto, a longa distancia da costa (o que adoitan faceren os individuos adultos); a profundidade máxima alcanzada rexistrada é de 366 m.[4]
  • Nadador moi activo, o raposo do mar aliméntase, en solitario ou en pequenos grupos (moitas veces en parellas) de peixes, perseguindo pequenos cardumes dos que separa algúns individuos rodeándoos coa súa cola, que actúa a xeito de látego. Consome sobre todo clupeidos ( sardiñas, arenques), xardas e lanzóns, pero tamén luras, polbos e crustáceos peláxicos.[3][4]
  • É ovovivíparo, con camadas de 2 a 4 crías, que miden ao nacer entre 114 e 150 cm, presentando quizais canibalismo intrauterino, como outros lamniformes.[4]

Estado de conservación do raposo de mar

Segundo a Unión Internacional para a Conservación da Natureza, a situación do raposo do mar na actualidade cualifícase, na súa "lista vermella", como VU (especie vulnerábel).[11][12]

En Galicia

Frecuente nas augas galegas, pódese ver o raposo de mar nas lonxas da Coruña e Vigo, ás que chega xa sen a cola, que os mariñeiros cortan ao subilos a bordo [Cómpre referencia]. Péscase con palangre.[3][13]

As outras especies da familia

  • Alopias pelagicus, que poderiamos denominar raposo do mar peláxico de acordo co seu nome científico,[14] vive nos océanos Índico e Pacífico a profundidades entre os 0 e os 500 m, e é o máis pequeno dos membros da familia, xa que ten unha lonxitude media de 3 m (aínda que pode chegar aos 4 m). Ten o dorso azul, e a súa coloración vai pasando progresivamente á gris, e despois á branca no ventre. Como todos os raposos do mar ten unha cola moi longa (ás veces tan longa como o resto do corpo), fociño curto e grandes ollos, aínda que máis pequenos que os de Alopias superciliosus, distinguíndose de Alopias vulpinus polas súas aletas pectorias menos afiadas.
    A súa poboación exacta e a súa distribución son mal coñecidas debido a que se confunde coa das outras dúas especies da familia; porén, a forte explotación das tres especies (especialmente pola pesca deportiva), o raposo do Pacífico estivo clasificado como vulnerábel, aínda que na actualidade non figura na lista de especies protexidas.
  • Alopias superciliaris vive en océanos e mares a latitudes comprendidas entre os 46 °N e os 40 °S, no Atlántico, Mediterráneo, Pacífico e Índico, a profundidades de entre 0 e polo menos os 500 m. A súa lonxitude máxima é de case 5 m (máxima rexistrada, 4,88 m; máis tipicamente, de 1,5 a 3,5 m). Distínguese das outras especies de alopíidos polos seus grandes ollos, o que xustificaría o nome vulgar de raposo do mar de ollos grandes, como os que se lle dan en inglés e francés, bigeye threser e requin-renard à gros yeux ou renard de mer à gros yeux, respectivamente).[15] Outra característica é que adultos e embrións presentan un suco horizontal prominente, estendido cara a atrás desde as aberturas branquiais, e por non presentaren suco labial. A súa coloración é parda agrisada escura na parte dorsal do corpo e branca crema na ventral.

Notas

  1. Bourdon, J. (2009): Fossil Genera: Alopias en ITIS (Integrated Taxonomic Information System). The Life and Times of Long Dead Sharks. Consultada o 9/12/2012.
  2. 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 Ríos Panisse, Mª C. (1977): Nomenclatura de la flora y fauna marítimas de Galicia. I. Invertebrados y peces. Santiago de Compostela: Universidad de Santiago de Compostela. Verba. Anejo 7. ISBN 84-7191-008-X, pp. 167-168 (citado como Alopias vulpes).
  3. 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 Rodríguez Solórzano et al. (1983), p. 36
  4. 4,0 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 4,5 4,6 Rodríguez Villanueva et al. (1992), pp. 52-53.
  5. Dicionario da RAG.
  6. 6,0 6,1 Lahuerta Mouriño, F. e Vázquez Álvarez, F. X. (2000): Vocabulario multilingüe de organismos acuáticos. Santiago de Compostela: Xunta de Galicia. ISBN 84-453-2913-8, p. 184.
  7. Ranier Froese e Daniel Pauly, (eds.) (2010): Alopias vulpinus en FishBase, verisón 7 de xaneiro de 2010. (en inglés) Consultada o 8/12(2012.
  8. Alopias en myEtymology.
  9. Eitner, B. (1995): "Systematics of the Genus Alopias (Lamniformes: Alopiidae) with Evidence for the Existence of an Unrecognized Species" Copeia, 1995 (3): 562–571. American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists. Resumo
  10. Sims, D. W. (2008): Advances in Marine Biology, Volume 54. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-374351-6, p. 175.
  11. Goldman, K. J.; Baum, J.; Cailliet, G. M.; Cortés, E.; Kohin, S.; Macías, D.; Megalofonou, P.; Pérez, M.; Soldo, A. & Trejo, T. (2007): Alopias vulpinus na Lista Vermella da IUCN, edición 2010.2
  12. Un SOS mundial por los tiburones Arquivado 12/03/2016, en Wayback Machine. Diario La Voz de Galicia, 8/1/2011. Consultada o 8/12/2012.
  13. Pontedeume, con 'p' de paladar Diario La Voz de Galicia, 6/3/2008. Consultada o 8/12/2012.
  14. Lahuerta e Vázquez adxudícanlle o nome de tiburón raposo do Índico
  15. Lahuerta e Vázquez, Op. cit., danlle o nome principal de tiburón raposo ollón e, como sinónimo, raposo ollón.

Véxase tamén

Bibliografía

  • Compagno, Leonard; Marc Dando & Sarah Fowler (2005): Sharks of the World. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12072-2.
  • Nelson, Joseph S. (2006): Fishes of the World. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-25031-7.
  • Rodríguez Solórzano, Manuel; Sergio Devesa Regueiro e Lidia Soutullo Garrido (1983): Guía dos peixes de Galicia. Vigo: Editorial Galaxia. ISBN 84-7154-433-4.
  • Rodríguez Villanueva, X. L. e Xavier Vázquez (1992): Peixes do mar de Galicia. (I) Lampreas raias e tiburóns. Vigo: Edicións Xerais de Galicia. ISBN 84-7507-654-8.
  • Solórzano, Manuel R[odríguez]; José L. Rodríguez, José Iglesias, Francisco X, Pereira e Federico Álvarez (1988): Inventario dos peixes do litoral galego (Pisces: Cyclostomata, Chondrichthyes, Osteichthyes). O Castro-Sada, A Coruña: Cadernos da Área de Ciencias Biolóxicas (Inventarios). Seminario de Estudos Galegos, vol. IV. ISBN 84-7492-370-0.

Outros artigos

Para as outras dúas especies

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Raposo do mar: Brief Summary ( Galician )

provided by wikipedia gl Galician

Raposo do mar, raposo de mar, peixe raposo, tiburón raposo ou simplemente raposo, camarín ou golpe son, entre outros, os nomes cos que se coñece en galego a especie Alopias vulpinus, peixe cartilaxinoso elasmobranquio da orde dos lamniformes (Lamniformes), familia dos alopíidos —tamén grafada alópidos— (Alopiidae) integrante do xénero Alopias, único co que conta dita familia, especie caracterizada pola súa extraordinaria cola, que mide case tanto como o resto do corpo.

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Hiu rubah laut ( Indonesian )

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Hiu rubah laut (bahasa Inggris: common thresher shark) atau Alopias vulpinus adalah sebuah spesies hiu yang mendiami perairan tropis dan perairan beriklim sedang di seluruh dunia.[1] Yang khas dari spesies hiu ini adalah ekornya yang panjang, dan mampu digunakan untuk menebas dan mengejutkan mangsanya.[2] Bobot rata-rata hiu rubah laut adalah sekitar 348 kg, dan dapat mencapai bobot 500 kg.[1] Panjang hiu tersebut berkisar 1,6 hingga 6m, dengan panjang rata-rata sekitar 2,74 m.[1]

Habitat dan persebaran geografis

Hiu rubah laut mendiami perairan tropis dan perairan beriklim sedang di seluruh dunia, baik di dekat pesisir maupun di tengah laut.[3] Di Samudera Atlantik, paus ini ditemukan dari Pulau Newfoundland, Kanada, hingga pesisir Brasil dan Argentina, dan dari Norwegia dan Kepulauan Inggris, hingga Ghana dan Pantai Gading.[3] Ikan ini juga ditemukan di Laut Mediterania. Meskipun biasa ditemukan di seluruh pesisir Atlantik di Amerika Serikat, hiu ini jarang ditemukan di selatan New England.[3]

Di daerah Indo Pasifik, hewan ini ditemukan di pesisirAfrika, Tanzania, Somalia, Maladewa, Kepulauan Chagos, Pakistan, India, Sumatra, Jepang, Korea, Selandia Baru, dan Kaledonia Baru.[3] Hiu rubah laut juga ditemukan di Kepulauan Hawai dan Kepulauan Fanning.[3] Di bagian selatan Samudera Pasifik, hiu ini dapat dijumpai di pesisir British Columbia hingga California, dan dari Panama hingga selatan Chile.[3]

Deskripsi Fisik dan Indentifikasi

Bobot rata-rata hiu rubah laut adalah sekitar 348 kg, dan dapat mencapai bobot 500 kg.[1] Panjang hiu tersebut berkisar 1,6 hingga 6m, dengan panjang rata-rata sekitar 2,74 m.[1] Hiu rubah laut memiliki sirip belakan (caudal fin) yang sangat panjang.[4] Panjang sirip tersebut bisa mencapai 50% dari panjang keseluruhan.[4] Gigi hiu relatif kecil, dengan bentuk melengkung dan sisi yang mulus.[4] Warna kulit diatas garis tengah dorsal bervariasi, dari coklat keunguan hingga kehitaman.[4] Hiu yang mati akan kehilangan warna kilau mengkilap, dan warna kulit hiu tersebut akan berubah menjadi abu-abu gelap.[4] Bagian bawah hiu bewarnah putih, dan area di sekitar sirip samping (sirip pektoral) juga putih.[4] Ujung sirip punggung dan sirip ekor juga bewarna putih.[4]

Reproduksi

Pada beberapa bagian dunia, hiu rubah laut melakukan perkembang-biakan sepanjang tahun.[1] Pola migrasi hiu tersebut di dekat Amerika Utara mengindikasikan bahwa spesies ini berkembang biak di perairan utara ketika musim semi dan musim panas, dan meninggalkan anak mereka di wilayah pemijahan di dekat pantai sebelum mereka bergerak ke selatan di musim dingin.[1] Hiu rubah laut mempunyai lebih dari satu pasangan (jantan dapat kawin dengan lebih dari satu betina), tapi hanya sedikit perilaku kawin mereka yang telah diketahui.[1] Hewan ini merupakan ovovivipar dan hanya mampu membawa dua anakan pada waktu yang bersamaan.[1] Anakan hiu terlahir mandiri, mereka tetap bertahan di wilayah pemijahan selama 3 tahun demi keamanan.[1] Hiu rubah laut jantan mencapai kedewasaan setelah 9 atau 10 tahun, sementara betina mencapainya pada usia 12.3 hingga 13.4 tahun.[1] Hiu rubah laut tidak membesarkan dan merawat anak mereka.[1] Setelah terlahir, anakan sepenuhnya mandiri dan tetap bertahan di wilayah pemijahan sebelum beranjak dewasa.[1]

Biologi Perilaku

Hiu rubah laut ditemukan di daerah pesisir maupun laut lepas.[2] Hewan muda biasanya hidup dekat pesisir dan di teluk yang dangkal.[2] Hiu rubah laut dapat memangsa ikan kembung, ikan sarden, ikan teri, cumi-cumi, gurita, krustasea, dan burung laut.[2] Hiu ini menggunakan sirip belakangnya (caudal fin) yang panjang untuk menebas dan mengejutkan mangsanya.[2][5] Serangan terhadap manusia jarang dilaporkan.[2] Terhadap manusia, spesies ini relatif tidak berbahaya.[2] Meskipun demikian, karena ukurannya yang besar, spesies ini perlu diwaspadai.[2]

Referensi

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m (Inggris)Lewis J (2011). "Alopias vulpinus". Animal Diversity Web. Diakses tanggal 13 May 2014.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h (Inggris)"Alopias vulpinus — Details Common Thresher Shark". Diakses tanggal 14 May 2014. line feed character di |title= pada posisi 27 (bantuan)
  3. ^ a b c d e f (Inggris)Jordan V. "THRESHER SHARK". Diakses tanggal 14 May 2014.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g (Inggris)Castro JI (2011). The Sharks of North America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195392944.
  5. ^ (Inggris)Bonfil R, Abdallah M (2004). Field Identification Guide to the Sharks and Rays of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Food & Agriculture Org. ISBN 9789251050453.
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Hiu rubah laut: Brief Summary ( Indonesian )

provided by wikipedia ID

Hiu rubah laut (bahasa Inggris: common thresher shark) atau Alopias vulpinus adalah sebuah spesies hiu yang mendiami perairan tropis dan perairan beriklim sedang di seluruh dunia. Yang khas dari spesies hiu ini adalah ekornya yang panjang, dan mampu digunakan untuk menebas dan mengejutkan mangsanya. Bobot rata-rata hiu rubah laut adalah sekitar 348 kg, dan dapat mencapai bobot 500 kg. Panjang hiu tersebut berkisar 1,6 hingga 6m, dengan panjang rata-rata sekitar 2,74 m.

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Alopias vulpinus ( Italian )

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Il pesce volpe[2] o squalo volpe (Alopias vulpinus Bonnaterre, 1788) è uno squalo lamniforme della famiglia degli Alopidi.

Coi suoi 6 m di lunghezza, rappresenta la specie più grande fra le tre ascritte al genere Alopias: la metà della lunghezza totale, tuttavia, spetta alla parte superiore della caratteristica coda, che l'animale utilizza come scudiscio per stordire e sopraffare le prede. Molto diffuso nei mari tropicali, lo squalo volpe nuota spesso in superficie in aree costiere, ma è presente anche alla profondità di 350 m. Lo si osserva meglio dall'imbarcazione o con un semplice aeratore in mare aperto. Normalmente non attacca l'uomo, ma se ferito e preso all'amo può dare poderosi colpi di coda.

Tassonomia

Già Aristotele, nel suo Historia Animalia, parlava dello squalo volpe: il pensatore e scienziato greco descriveva questi squali come animali molto astuti, particolarmente abili nello sfuggire ai pescatori (ad esempio rompendo le lenze a morsi) e dall'abitudine di ingoiare i propri piccoli per proteggerli (credenza probabilmente basata sul ritrovamento di embrioni prossimi alla nascita all'interno del corpo di qualche femmina)[3]. Comportamenti del genere portarono Aristotele a ritenere questo squalo estremamente furbo e a chiamarlo perciò ἀλώπηξ (alṓpēx, "volpe" in greco antico), da cui derivano sia il nome comune che quello scientifico di questo animale.

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Disegno di squalo volpe risalente al 1889.

La specie venne descritta scientificamente per la prima volta dal naturalista francese Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre, il quale nel 1788 la classificava nel suo Tableau encyclopédique et méthodique des trois règnes de la nature col nome di Squalus vulpinus. Il nome scientifico della specie deriva dal latino vulpes, col significato di "volpe"[4]. In seguito, la specie venne riclassificata e ascritta al genere Alopias da Rafinesque, col nome di Alopias macrourus ("dalla grande coda"): tuttavia, secondo le regole dell'ICZN, il nome valido rimase quello più assegnato per primo in termini cronologici, ed essendo stato appurato che lo squalo volpe non era strettamente imparentato con le altre specie del genere Squalus il nome scientifico assegnato alla specie divenne Alopias vulpinus[5].

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Un esemplare catturato che viene studiato

Nell'ambito del genere Alopias, lo squalo volpe comune rappresenta un clade basale prossimo a quello comprendente le altre due specie (Alopias superciliosus e A. pelagicus) e comprendente anche un'ipotetica quarta specie identificata in base all'analisi degli allozimi di un campione di tessuto muscolare ritenuto inizialmente di A. pelagicus[6].

Descrizione

Dimensioni

Si tratta della specie più grande della famiglia degli Alopiidae. Generalmente misura attorno ai 3-4 metri di lunghezza per un peso di 230–250 kg, ma può crescere ben al di là di tali misure: il record di lunghezza dello squalo volpe è di 7,60 m, mentre il record di peso è di 510 kg ed appartiene a una grossa femmina[7].
Le femmine, a parità d'età, sono più grandi e robuste dei maschi.

Aspetto

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Uno squalo volpe conservato al Kelvingrove Museum di Glasgow lascia osservare tutte le caratteristiche salienti della specie.

Il corpo è tozzo e siluriforme, con testa tozza e larga dal profilo dorsale convesso e munita di muso conico. Gli occhi sono di medie dimensioni, mentre la bocca è relativamente piccola e munita di una piccola scanalatura a ciascun lato (presente anche in Alopias pelagicus, ma assente in A. superciliosus): in essa trovano posto 20 file di denti nella mascella e 21 nella mandibola, i quali sono piccoli e presentano forma allungata con fine seghettatura sul margine e mancanza di cuspidi laterali (osservabili invece in Alopias pelagicus). Le scaglie sono di tipo placoide, leggermente sovrapposte fra loro e molto piccole (0,21 mm di diametro). Gli archi branchiali sono 5, piuttosto piccoli e posti lateralmente sul corpo, quasi in posizione inferiore: gli ultimi due sono posizionati oltre l'attacco delle pinne pettorali.

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Pinna caudale di squalo volpe.

Queste ultime sono insolitamente lunghe e di aspetto falciforme, mentre le pinne pelviche sono quadrangolari e di piccole dimensioni. Di piccole dimensioni è anche la seconda pinna dorsale, mentre la prima è di medie dimensioni e si innesta con il margine anteriore in corrispondenza di quello posteriore delle pettorali. Ciò che colpisce di più in questo animale è tuttavia la pinna caudale, eterocerca nella sua parte superiore, che arriva ad essere lunga quanto il corpo e che a sua volta presentata un'espansione triangolare nella sua parte finale.

Come altri squali pelagici della famiglia Lamnidae, lo squalo volpe possiede una striscia di tessuto muscolare striato a respirazione aerobica su ciascun fianco: tale tessuto è in grado di emettere calore tramite contrazione continua e prolungata nel tempo[8]: oltre a questa caratteristica (condivisa fra l'altro anche con le due specie congeneri), questa specie presenta anche dei muscoli striati posti in profondità nel torso e collegati a una rete mirabile di capillari che consente uno scambio quasi immediato del calore prodotto. In tal modo, l'animale è in grado di mostrare un certo grado di omeotermia, con la temperatura corporea che generalmente supera quella esterna in media di circa 2 °C (anche se tale valore varia anche in maniera significativa da individuo a individuo)[9].
A differenza delle altre due specie congeneri (ed in particolare di Alopias superciliosus, in cui tale struttura è particolarmente sviluppata), lo squalo volpe risulta privo di una seconda rete mirabile posta fra gli occhi e il cervello, con funzione protettiva nei confronti dei primi, in quanto avente funzione di ammortizzare gli sbalzi di temperatura dovuti al movimento verticale dell'animale nella colonna d'acqua[10].

Lo squalo volpe è di colore bruno-grigiastro con riflessi metallici sui fianchi, che tende a scurirsi sino a diventare quasi nero man mano che si procede verso il dorso: a livello delle pinne pettorali e del peduncolo caudale sono presenti macchie di colore più scuro, mentre la pinna dorsale è di un caratteristico colore verde scuro (nelle altre specie di squalo volpe è solitamente di colore violaceo). Il ventre è biancastro, così come la base delle pinne pettorali (che in Alopias pelagicus è invece dello stesso colore del dorso) e la zona sotto gli occhi.[11]. Dopo la morte, tuttavia, il corpo perde i suoi riflessi metallici e il colore vira velocemente verso il grigio.

Biologia

Si tratta di grandi nuotatori solitari, che percorrono instancabilmente gli oceani alla ricerca di cibo: sebbene sia possibile osservarli in coppie o in gruppetti, tali assembramenti sono il più delle volte dovuti alla presenza di un'abbondante fonte di cibo nelle vicinanze. A volte questi squali possono essere osservati mentre si esibiscono in salti e acrobazie fuori dall'acqua, similmente a quanto osservabile in molti cetacei: si pensa che questo insolito comportamento abbia la stessa funzione del breaching di questi ultimi, oppure abbia un qualche ruolo nella lotta contro i parassiti[12].
Fra i parassiti di questa specie finora descritti figurano varie specie di copepodi (nove specie del genere Nemesis, che colpiscono le branchie[13], Gangliopus pyriformis[14], Bariaka alopiae[15] e Kroeyerina benzorum[16]), il protozoo Giardia intestinalis[17], i cestodi Paraorygmatobothrium exiguum e Sphyriocephalus tergetinus,[18][19] e (anche se eccezionalmente) Campula oblonga[20].

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Esemplare femmina lungo 4,47 m rinvenuto in Svezia

Sebbene si tratti di un predatore posto all'apice della catena alimentare, lo squalo volpe (ed in particolare gli esemplari giovani) può cadere preda di altri squali di maggiori dimensioni: alcune popolazioni di orca, inoltre, sono state osservate cacciare attivamente esemplari di questa specie al largo della Nuova Zelanda[21].

Una leggenda comune fra i pescatori vede lo squalo volpe come inseparabile amico-nemico del pesce spada: i due animali sarebbero soliti affrontarsi a colpi di coda e spada, e spesso collaborerebbero nella caccia alle balene. Qui i resoconti diventano discordanti: mentre in una versione lo squalo volpe distrarrebbe la preda nuotando in cerchio attorno ad essa e fendendo l'acqua con la coda, permettendo al pesce spada di infilzare indisturbato un punto vulnerabile della balena, nell'altra il pesce spada si piazzerebbe verticalmente al di sotto della balena, mentre lo squalo volpe, saltando sul dorso di quest'ultima e martellando con la coda, la spingerebbe a infilzarsi sulla spada. Altri racconti descrivono lo squalo volpe come cacciatore solitario di cetacei, che aggredirebbe tagliando loro grossi pezzi di carne con la coda.
Tuttavia, né lo squalo volpe, né tantomeno il pesce spada possiedono una dentizione adatta a sopraffare balene e a nutrirsi della loro carne: probabilmente, tali racconti hanno avuto origine da avvistamenti di orche (la cui alta pinna dorsale potrebbe essere stata confusa con la pinna caudale di uno squalo volpe, e che effettivamente annoverano fra le proprie prede anche le balene) nei pressi di qualche balena uccisa e dal ritrovamento di rostri di pesce spada conficcati nel corpo di qualche balenottera, probabilmente dovuti a qualche incidente causato dalle scarse doti di frenata di questo pesce[22].

Alimentazione

La quasi totalità (fino al 97%) della dieta dello squalo volpe è costituita da piccoli pesci ossei pelagici gregari, come aringhe, sgombri, aguglie, pesci serra e pesci lanterna. Di tanto in tanto essi si cibano anche di prede di maggiori dimensioni (come i sauri), così come di calamari e di altri invertebrati pelagici.
Gli squali volpe tendono ad essere abbastanza selettivi ed abitudinari per quanto riguarda le prede, concentrandosi su poche specie, ma divenendo più opportunisti nei periodi caldi, dovuti all'influenza di El Niño: ad esempio, le popolazioni californiane di squalo volpe si nutrono principalmente della sardina Engraulis mordax, ma durante i periodi più caldi cacciano anche altre prede solitamente occasionali, come Sardinops sagax, Merluccius productus, Scomber japonicus e anche invertebrati come Loligo opalescens e Pleuroncodes planipes[23].

Per cacciare le proprie prede, lo squalo volpe si serve della lunga coda per fendere l'acqua, compattando così i banchi e potendosi nutrire agevolmente attraversandoli senza farli disperdere: spesso quest'azione viene svolta in coppie o in piccoli gruppi, che tuttavia non sono precostituiti ma si incontrano casualmente sul luogo del banchetto.
Nell'immaginario collettivo lo squalo volpe utilizza la lunghissima coda per menare fendenti e scudisciate sulle prede. A supporto di tale credenza vi sarebbero alcuni avvistamenti di squali intenti a compiere questo gesto: nell'inverno 1865 l'ittiologo irlandese Harry Blake-Knox avrebbe osservato uno squalo volpe dilaniare a colpi di coda e poi mangiare una strolaga maggiore (testimonianza questa giudicata poco verosimile, poiché si ritiene che la coda dello squalo volpe non possieda muscolatura sufficiente ad esercitare una forza tale da provocare lesioni sul corpo delle prede), mentre il 14 aprile 1923 un altro esemplare lungo attorno ai due metri colpì con la coda degli Atherinopsis californiensis sotto gli occhi dell'oceanografo W. E. Allen. Inoltre, il fatto che non sia raro trovare questi squali impigliati agli ami dei palamiti per la coda lascia supporre che ciò avvenga quando l'animale tenta di colpire con la coda le prede prese all'amo.

Riproduzione

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Due esemplari neonati di squalo volpe.

Si tratta di squali ovovivipari: la femmina dà alla luce un numero di piccoli che va da due a sette (nelle popolazioni del Pacifico le nidiate contano solitamente un numero pari di piccoli, mentre nelle popolazioni dell'Atlantico tale numero è solitamente dispari[24]). L'accoppiamento avviene solitamente nei mesi estivi, dimodoché la femmina partorisca in un periodo favorevole dell'anno (marzo-giugno nelle popolazioni californiane, mesi estivi in quelle mediterranee, gennaio-maggio in quelle indo-pacifiche), mentre la femmina ritorna a nord per passare l'estate. Durante la gestazione (che dura circa nove mesi) gli embrioni praticano l'ovofagia, nutrendosi delle uova non fecondate che la madre periodicamente produce. L'embrione assume le uova intere, in quanto i piccoli denti sono ricoperti da tessuto e diventano funzionali solo poco prima della nascita, probabilmente per evitare che i piccoli possano ferire la madre durante la gestazione[25].

Il fatto che siano state individuate aree di nursery per i piccoli nel sud della California e della Spagna fa pensare che il parto avvenga in aree accuratamente scelte dalle femmine in tutto l'areale occupato dalla specie. Alla nascita i piccoli sono insolitamente grandi, misurando fino a 160 cm di lunghezza (un terzo degli adulti) per un peso di 5–6 kg. Essi crescono a ritmo molto veloce (fino a mezzo metro l'anno) durante i primi anni di vita: la crescita tende poi a stabilizzarsi con l'età, fino a raggiungere valori medi di una decina di centimetri l'anno negli adulti[26]. Attorno ai tre anni, i piccoli lasciano le aree di nursery (site in acque basse e calme, come baie e lagune) e si avventurano in mare aperto[27].
La maturità sessuale viene raggiunta ad età e dimensioni che sembrano essere differenti sia nei due sessi che nelle varie popolazioni: i maschi generalmente maturano attorno ai 5 anni d'età (2,6-3,4 m di lunghezza) in tutto l'areale occupato dalla specie, mentre le femmine maturano alcuni anni più tardi, a una lunghezza che va dai 2,6 m (Baja California) ai 4,5 m (Oceano Indiano).

Sebbene non si conosca con esattezza la speranza di vita dello squalo volpe, comparando le dimensioni di questa specie con quelle delle altre due specie (che vivono in media 20-30 anni) è stato stimato che lo squalo volpe possa vivere fino a 43 anni o anche di più[28].

Distribuzione ed habitat

Si tratta di una specie diffusa in tutti i mari temperati e subtropicali del mondo: nell'Atlantico lo si trova ad ovest da Terranova alle Antille e in Brasile e Argentina, mentre ad est è diffuso dallo Skagerrak al Ghana. Nell'Oceano Indiano lo si trova dal Sudafrica all'Indonesia e nell'Oceano Pacifico lo squalo volpe è osservabile dal Giappone alla Nuova Zelanda a ovest e dalla Columbia Britannica al Cile ad est: è inoltre diffuso anche fra le varie isole del Pacifico, specialmente alle Hawaii. Lo squalo volpe è invece assente dal Mar Baltico, dal Mar Rosso e dal Golfo Persico, così come dalle acque circumpolari: lo si trova invece abbastanza di frequente nel Mediterraneo (specialmente nel Golfo del Leone), dove sembrerebbe essere stata addirittura identificata un'area di nursery lungo la costa spagnola[29], oltre che in almeno una parte del Mar Nero[30].
La sua così ampia diffusione è dovuta al fatto che gli squali volpe sono animali estremamente mobili che sono soliti compiere lunghe migrazioni, nella maggior parte dei casi dovute allo spostamento delle prede (che seguono le correnti oceaniche) e solitamente dirette verso l'Equatore durante l'inverno e verso i poli durante l'estate[31]. I maschi sembrano essere più propensi a percorrere lunghe distanze rispetto alle femmine, mentre i giovani non compiono spostamenti di una certa entità almeno fino al raggiungimento della maturità. La popolazione residente nella porzione occidentale dell'Oceano Indiano tende altresì alla stanzialità, mostrando separazione dei sessi in base alla differente profondità occupata, segregazione che appare tanto più evidente durante i mesi in cui le femmine partoriscono[32].
Nonostante questa grossa tendenza a compiere grandi spostamenti, gli squali volpe di differenti popolazioni raramente si accoppiano fra loro: questa caratteristica è emersa dalle analisi del DNA mitocondriale, che hanno evidenziato una marcata variabilità genetica fra le popolazioni di squalo volpe dei tre oceani[33].

Gli squali volpe mostrano un maggiore attaccamento alle acque costiere rispetto alle due specie congeneri, tenendosi generalmente a ridosso della piattaforma continentale e rivelandosi piuttosto difficili da osservare a più di 30 km dalla costa: i giovani individui addirittura eleggono a propria dimora le acque poco profonde, come baie e insenature, dove trovano riparo dai predatori.
Sebbene La maggior parte degli avvistamenti siano avvenuti nei pressi della superficie, sono stati ripresi squali volpe fino a profondità di 550 m e probabilmente questa specie può spingersi anche a profondità maggiori. Mentre durante il giorno rimangono a più di 100 m di profondità, durante le ore notturne gli squali volpe risalgono a profondità minori per trovare il cibo[34].

Rapporti con l'uomo

A dispetto delle dimensioni abbastanza ragguardevoli, gli squali volpe non costituiscono un pericolo per l'uomo in quanto esso non è visto come potenziale fonte di cibo: si tratta di animali che ad ogni modo vanno avvicinati con cautela in quanto capaci di infliggere profonde ferite coi denti e di spezzare le ossa con la potente coda. Tale potenziale pericolosità viene però annullata dal fatto che questi squali si rivelino abbastanza timidi e risultino difficili da osservare per i subacquei.
Sino ad oggi sono stati registrati un solo attacco all'uomo e quattro a barche (probabilmente dovuti ad individui pescati accidentalmente e particolarmente battaglieri), oltre a una presunta aggressione a un apneista neozelandese. Circola infine un racconto riguardante un pescatore statunitense decapitato da un colpo di coda di uno squalo volpe di 5 m[35].

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Piatto a base di squalo volpe.

L'uomo, invece, costituisce un pericolo concreto per questo squalo: gli squali volpe cadono infatti abitualmente vittima dei palamiti e dei sistemi di pesca utilizzati per catturare i pesci spada, specie nell'Atlantico[36]. Oltre alla pesca accidentale, esiste un fiorente business che riguarda la pesca dello squalo in generale e minaccia anche questa specie: la pelle viene trattata e commercializzata sotto forma di cuoio, la carne viene commercializzata salata o affumicata per il consumo umano, l'olio estratto dal fegato viene utilizzato in farmaceutica e cosmetica, ma il pezzo pregiato sono le pinne, che vengono pagate a peso d'oro sui mercati asiatici in quanto ingrediente principe della zuppa di pinne di pescecane. Perfino negli Stati Uniti sussisteva una flotta di imbarcazioni preposte alla pesca dello squalo volpe, che nel 1982 arrivò a contare 228 imbarcazioni, garantendo un pescato annuo di 1091 tonnellate[37]: attualmente la pesca allo squalo volpe appare in netta diminuzione, soprattutto a causa del drastico calo del numero di esemplari nella zona.

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Uno squalo volpe preso all'amo.

Lo squalo volpe rappresenta inoltre un ambitissimo trofeo per i pescatori sportivi, in quanto ritenuto (assieme allo squalo mako) un fiero avversario molto difficile da sopraffare: la pesca sportiva a questo squalo viene praticata soprattutto in California, Sudafrica e Nuova Zelanda[38].

Tutti questi fattori hanno fatto sì che lo status delle tre specie del genere Alopias venisse modificato nel 2007 dall'IUCN, passando da "dati insufficienti" a "vulnerabile"[39]. Per evitare di intaccare troppo le popolazioni, come accaduto in California, e per permettere a quelle rimanenti di riprendersi numericamente, alcuni governi hanno imposto precise regolamentazioni sia per ciò che concerne la quantità che le dimensioni degli squali volpe catturabili, in alcuni casi dichiarando fuorilegge la pratica della pesca al solo fine di ottenere le pinne. Simili provvedimenti si sono dimostrati benefici, in quanto ad esempio la popolazione californiana di squalo volpe ha mostrato un incremento annuo compreso fra il 4 ed il 7%[40].

Note

  1. ^ (EN) Goldman, K.J. & members of the Shark Specialist Group 2002, Alopias vulpinus, su IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Versione 2020.2, IUCN, 2020. URL consultato il 29 aprile 2019.
  2. ^ Mipaaf - Decreto Ministeriale n°19105 del 22 settembre 2017 - Denominazioni in lingua italiana delle specie ittiche di interesse commerciale, su www.politicheagricole.it. URL consultato il 21 febbraio 2018.
  3. ^ Bodson, L. 1983. Aristotle's statement on the reproduction of sharks. Journal of the History of Biology, 16: 391-407.
  4. ^ Ebert, D.A., Sharks, Rays, and Chimaeras of California, London, University of California Press, 2003, ISBN 0-520-23484-7.
  5. ^ Jordan, V. Thresher Shark - Alopias vulpinus. Florida Museum of Natural History. Retrieved on December 23, 2008.
  6. ^ Eitner, B.J., Systematics of the genus Alopias (Lamniformes: Alopiidae) with evidence for the existence of an unrecognized species, in Copeia, vol. 1995, n. 3, 18 agosto 1995, pp. 562–571, DOI:10.2307/1446753.
  7. ^ Booth, J. and agencies, Giant thresher shark caught off Cornish coast, in Times Online, London, 22 novembre 2007. URL consultato il 23 dicembre 2008.
  8. ^ Martin, R.A. Common Thresher Shark. ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research. Retrieved on December 23, 2008.
  9. ^ Bernal, D. and Sepulveda, C.A., Evidence for temperature elevation in the aerobic swimming musculature of the common thresher shark, Alopias vulpinus, in Copeia, vol. 2005, n. 1, 24 febbraio 2005, pp. 146–151, DOI:10.1643/CP-04-180R1.
  10. ^ Weng, K.C. and Block, B.A., Diel vertical migration of the bigeye thresher shark (Alopias superciliosus), a species possessing orbital retia mirabilia, in Fishery Bulletin - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, vol. 102, n. 1, 2004, pp. 221–229.
  11. ^ Compagno, L.J.V., Sharks of the World: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date (Volume 2), Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization, 2002, pp. 86–88, ISBN 92-5-104543-7.
  12. ^ Leonard, M. A Firsthand Account of a Jumping Thresher Shark. University of Florida Museum of Natural History. Retrieved on December 23, 2008.
  13. ^ Benz, G., S. Adamson. 1990. Disease caused by Nemesis robusta (van Beneden, 1851) (Eudactylinidae: Siphonostomatoida: Copepoda) infections on gill filaments of thresher sharks (Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre, 1758)), with notes on parasite ecology and life history. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 68/6: 1180-1186.
  14. ^ Izawa, K. 2010. Free-living stages of the parasitic copepod, Gangliopus pyriformis gerstaecker, 1854 (Siphonostomatoida, Pandaridae) reared from eggs. Crustaceana, 83: 829-837.
  15. ^ Borucinska, J., K. Kotran, M. Shackett, T. Barker. 2009. Melanomacrophages in three species of free-ranging sharks from the northwestern Atlantic, the blue shark Prionacae glauca (L.), the shortfin mako, Isurus oxyrhinchus Rafinesque, and the thresher, Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre). Journal of Fish Diseases, 32: 883-891.
  16. ^ Deets, G.B., Phylogenetic analysis and revision of Kroeyerina Wilson, 1932 (Siphonostomatoida: Kroyeriidae), copepods parasitic on chondrichthyans, with descriptions of four new species and the erection of a new genus, Prokroyeria, in Canadian Journal of Zoology, vol. 65, n. 9, 1987, pp. 2121–2148, DOI:10.1139/z87-327.
  17. ^ Lasek-Nesselquist, E., A.L. Bogomolni, R.J. Gast, D.M. Welch, J.C. Ellis, M.L. Sogin and M.J. Moore, Molecular characterization of Giardia intestinalis haplotypes in marine animals: variation and zoonotic potential, in Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, vol. 81, n. 1, 19 agosto 2008, pp. 39–51, DOI:10.3354/dao01931, PMID 18828561.
  18. ^ Ruhnke, T.R., Paraorygmatobothrium barberi n. g., n. sp. (Cestoda: Tetraphyllidea), with amended descriptions of two species transferred to the genus, in Systematic Parasitology, vol. 28, n. 1, maggio 1994, pp. 65–79, DOI:10.1007/BF00006910.
  19. ^ Gomez Cabrera, S., Forma adulta de Sphyriocephalus tergetinus (Cestoda: Tetrarhynchidea) en Alopias vulpinus (Peces: Selacea), in Revista Iberica de Parasitologia, vol. 43, n. 3, 1983, p. 305.
  20. ^ Adams, A.M., E.P. Hoberg, D.F. McAlpine and S.L. Clayden, Occurrence and morphological comparisons of Campula oblonga (Digenea: Campulidae), including a report from an atypical host, the thresher shark, Alopias vulpinus, in Journal of Parasitology, vol. 84, n. 2, aprile 1998, pp. 435–438.
  21. ^ Visser, I.N., First observations of feeding on thresher (Alopias vulpinus) and hammerhead (Sphyrna zygaena) sharks by killer whales (Orcinus orca) specialising on elasmobranch prey, in Aquatic Mammals, vol. 31, n. 1, gennaio 2005, pp. 83–88, DOI:10.1578/AM.31.1.2005.83.
  22. ^ Wood, W., Adventures with Big Fish - Big Game Fishing and Whaling, Read Books, 2008, ISBN 1-4437-3729-1.
  23. ^ Preti, A., Smith, S.E. and Ramon, D.A., Diet differences in the thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) during transition from a warm-water regime to a cool-water regime off California-Oregon, 1998–2000, in California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations Report, vol. 45, 2004, pp. 118–125.
  24. ^ Species Fact Sheets: Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre, 1788. FAO Fisheries and Agriculture Department. Retrieved on December 23, 2008.
  25. ^ Shimada, K., Teeth of embryos in lamniform sharks (Chondrichthyes: Elasmobranchii), in Environmental Biology of Fishes, vol. 63, 2002, pp. 309–319, DOI:10.1023/A:1014392211903.
  26. ^ The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas. Preliminary investigations into the age and growth of the shortfin mako, Isurus oxyrinchus, white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, and thresher shark, Alopias vulpinus, in the western North Atlantic Ocean. 54. Madrid, Spain: The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas. 2002.
  27. ^ Lewis, J. 2011. "Alopias vulpinus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed August 23, 2011
  28. ^ National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration. Age and growth estimates of the bigeye thresher shark, Alopias superciliosus, in Northeastern Taiwan waters. 96. Seattle, Wa: National Marine Fisheries Service. 1998.
  29. ^ Maddalena, A. de & Baensch, H., 2005. Haie im Mittelmeer. Stuttgart: Franckh-Kosmos Verlags-GmbH & Co.
  30. ^ Kabasakal, H., 1998. A note on the occurrence of the thresher shark, Alopias vulpinus from the south-western Black Sea. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 78, 685–686
  31. ^ Cartamil, D. 2009. Movement patterns, habitat preferences, and fisheries biology of the common thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) in the Southern California Bight. San Diego: University of California. Accessed September 16, 2010
  32. ^ Martin, R.A. Biology of the Common Thresher (Alopias vulpinus). ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research. Retrieved on December 23, 2008.
  33. ^ Trejo, T. (2005). "Global phylogeography of thresher sharks (Alopias spp.) inferred from mitochondrial DNA control region sequences". M.Sc. thesis. Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, California State University.
  34. ^ MarineBio. 2010. "Alopias vulpinus, Thresher Shark" (On-line). MarineBio.org, su marinebio.org. URL consultato il 13 maggio 2007 (archiviato dall'url originale il 19 luglio 2009).
  35. ^ Cacutt, L., The Big-Game Fishing Handbook, Stackpole Books, 2000, ISBN 0-8117-2673-8.
  36. ^ Atlantic Common Thresher Shark. FishWatch - U.S. Seafood Facts. Retrieved on December 23, 2008.
  37. ^ Mazurek, R., Seafood Watch Fishery Report: Sharks Volume I Common Thresher, MBA SeafoodWatch, 2001.
  38. ^ Rudow, L., Rudow's Guide to Fishing the Mid Atlantic: Coastal Bays and Ocean, Geared Up Publications, 2006, ISBN 0-9787278-0-0.
  39. ^ More oceanic sharks added to the IUCN Red List, su iucn.org, IUCN, 22 febbraio 2007. URL consultato il 21 dicembre 2008 (archiviato dall'url originale il 14 gennaio 2009).
  40. ^ Pacific Common Thresher Shark. FishWatch - U.S. Seafood Facts. Retrieved on December 23, 2008.

Bibliografia

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Alopias vulpinus: Brief Summary ( Italian )

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Il pesce volpe o squalo volpe (Alopias vulpinus Bonnaterre, 1788) è uno squalo lamniforme della famiglia degli Alopidi.

Coi suoi 6 m di lunghezza, rappresenta la specie più grande fra le tre ascritte al genere Alopias: la metà della lunghezza totale, tuttavia, spetta alla parte superiore della caratteristica coda, che l'animale utilizza come scudiscio per stordire e sopraffare le prede. Molto diffuso nei mari tropicali, lo squalo volpe nuota spesso in superficie in aree costiere, ma è presente anche alla profondità di 350 m. Lo si osserva meglio dall'imbarcazione o con un semplice aeratore in mare aperto. Normalmente non attacca l'uomo, ma se ferito e preso all'amo può dare poderosi colpi di coda.

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Voshaai ( Dutch; Flemish )

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De voshaai of gewone voshaai (ook wel zeevos genoemd) Alopias vulpinus is een haai uit de familie van de voshaaien, Alopiidae, orde van de makreelhaaien (Lamniformes).

Kenmerken

De (gewone) voshaai is de grootste van de drie soorten voshaaien; hij kan wel 6 meter lang worden en 450 kg zwaar. Bijna de helft van de lengte van het dier bestaat uit het verlengstuk van de bovenste staartvin. Hij heeft een toegespitste borstvin en een korte, spitse snuit. De voshaai lijkt sterk op de pelagische voshaai, (A. pelagicus), waarmee hij wel wordt verward. De voshaai onderscheidt zich van de pelagische voshaai door een witte vlek op de buik die doorloopt als een band boven de basis van de borstvinnen. De voshaai is bruin met een witte buik met over het gehele lichaam donkerbruine vlekken.

Verspreiding en leefgebied

Voshaaien komen voor in zowel kustwateren als in de pelagische zone (open oceanen) in tropische en gematigde klimaatgebieden. Ze houden zich op bij het wateroppervlak tot op een diepte van ongeveer 500 meter. De voshaai vertoont trekgedrag afhankelijk van het seizoen. In de zomer verplaatsen zij zich van de warme tropische wateren naar de hogere breedten. Het zijn zeer goede, snelle zwemmers.

Leefwijze

De grote staartvin wordt gebruikt om scholen vis bijeen te jagen. Daarbij zwemmen ze om de school heen, al zwiepend met hun staart. Aldus krijgen ze makreel, tonijn, pelser, haring en horsmakreel te pakken.[2]

Verdediging

De staart dient ook als verdedigingsmiddel tegen mensen. Het komt weleens voor, dat voshaaien aan boord van schepen worden gehesen. Dan zwiepen ze met hun staart wild om zich heen. Er zou zelfs al een visser door zijn onthoofd. Ook tegen andere roofzuchtige zeebewoners wordt de staart ter verdediging ingezet.

Natuurbescherming

Volgens schattingen is de populatie van de gewone voshaai tussen 1986 en 2000 met 63 tot 80% achteruitgegaan (dit is 7 tot 11% per jaar), door onder meer de sterfte als bijvangst bij de beroepsvisserij op zwaardvis en tonijn. Daarom staat de voshaai op de internationale rode lijst als kwetsbare soort.[3]
Hoewel er op de Nederlandse rode lijst bedreigde haaiensoorten staan die voorkomen in de Noordzee, zoals de gevlekte gladde haai en de ruwe haai, ontbreekt de voshaai. De voshaai is geen uitgesproken bewoner van ondiepe kustwateren en is daarom zeer zeldzaam in de zuidelijke Noordzee. Er zijn slechts enkele voshaaivangsten gedaan in de zomer en het najaar in Nederlandse kustwateren.[2]

Voetnoten

Bronnen, noten en/of referenties
  1. (en) Voshaai op de IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
  2. a b Nijssen, H. & S.J. de Groot, 1987. De vissen van Nederland, KNNV, Utrecht.
  3. Goldman, K.J., Baum, J., Cailliet, G.M., Cortés, E., Kohin, S., Macías, D., Megalofonou, P., Perez, M., Soldo, A. & Trejo, T. 2007. Alopias vulpinus. In: IUCN 2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. . Downloaded on 04 March 2010.
  • David Burnie (2001) - Animals, Dorling Kindersley Limited, London. ISBN 90-18-01564-4 (naar het Nederlands vertaald door Jaap Bouwman en Henk J. Nieuwenkamp).

Externe link

Website van Florida Museum of Natural History

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Voshaai: Brief Summary ( Dutch; Flemish )

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De voshaai of gewone voshaai (ook wel zeevos genoemd) Alopias vulpinus is een haai uit de familie van de voshaaien, Alopiidae, orde van de makreelhaaien (Lamniformes).

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Kosogon ( Polish )

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Commons Multimedia w Wikimedia Commons

Kosogon[15], lis morski[16] (Alopias vulpinus) – gatunek morskiej ryby chrzęstnoszkieletowej z rodziny kosogonowatych (Alopiidae). Poławiana gospodarczo i w wędkarstwie.

Zasięg występowania

Gatunek kosmopolityczny, występujący w strefie ciepłych i umiarkowanie ciepłych, przypowierzchniowych wód oceanicznych. Młode osobniki spotykane są w strefie przybrzeżnej.

Opis

Ciało wrzecionowate, smukłe, z krótkim pyskiem i stosunkowo małymi oczami. Ubarwienie zmienne, grzbiet brązowy, ciemnoszary, szaroniebieski lub czarny, boki jaśniejsze. Górny płat płetwy ogonowej mocno wydłużony stanowi połowę lub ponad połowę długości ciała ryby. Osiągają maksymalnie 7,6 m długości przy masie ciała około 350 kg.

Polują na ryby zaganiając je w zwarte stada, po czym uderzeniami ogonów ogłuszają i chwytają ofiary. Czasami ofiarami takich ataków stają się polujące na ryby ptaki. Samica rodzi 2–4 młodych, które po urodzeniu mają do 1,5 m długości razem z ogonem.

Nie notowano bezpośrednich ataków na ludzi, ale zdarzały się ataki na łodzie. Z racji dużych rozmiarów i drapieżnego trybu życia może stanowić zagrożenie dla człowieka.

Przypisy

  1. Alopias vulpinus, w: Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ang.).
  2. P.J. Bonnaterre: Tableau encyclopédique et méthodique des trois regnes de la nature. Ichthyologie. Paris: Chez Panckoucke, 1788, s. 9. (fr.)
  3. J.F. Gmelin: Systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. T. 1. Cz. 3. Lipsiae: Impensis Georg. Emanuel. Beer., 1789, s. 1496. (łac.)
  4. J. Berkenhout: Synopsis of the natural history of Great-Britain and Ireland. Containing a systematic arrangement and concise description of all the animals, vegetables and fossils which have hitherto been discovered in these kingdoms. Wyd. 2. London: Cadell, 1789, s. 60. (ang.)
  5. Rafinesque 1810 ↓, s. 12.
  6. Rafinesque 1810 ↓, s. 13.
  7. J.E. Gray: Catalogue of fish collected and described by Laurence Theodore Gronow, now in the British Museum. London: The Trustees, 1854, s. 7. (ang.)
  8. C. Pérez Canto. Estudios sobre algunos escualos de la costa de Chile. „Anales de la Universidad de Chile”. Sección 1. 69, s. 6, 1886 (hiszp.).
  9. Philippi 1902 ↓, s. 310.
  10. Philippi 1902 ↓, s. 308.
  11. S. Garman. The Plagiostomia (sharks, skates, and rays). „Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology”. 36, s. 30, 1913 (ang.).
  12. W.J. Phillipps. Notes on new fishes from New Zealand. „The New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology”. 13 (4), s. 226, 1932 (ang.).
  13. G.P. Whitley. Studies in ichthyology. No. 10. „Records of the Australian Museum”. 20 (1), s. 5, 1937 (ang.).
  14. Alopias vulpinus. Czerwona księga gatunków zagrożonych (IUCN Red List of Threatened Species) (ang.).
  15. K. Kowalska, J.M. Rembiszewski & H. Rolik: Ryby. Warszawa: Wiedza Powszechna, 1973, s. 118, seria: Mały słownik zoologiczny.
  16. G. Nikolski: Ichtiologia szczegółowa. Tłum. Franciszek Staff. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Rolnicze i Leśne, 1970.

Bibliografia

  1. C.S. Rafinesque: Caratteri di alcuni nuovi generi e nuove specie di animali e piante della Sicilia, con varie osservazioni sopra i medesimi. Palermo: Per le stampe di Sanfilippo, 1810, s. ia-iva, 71-105. (ang.)
  2. R.A. Philippi. Descripcion de cinco nuevas especies chilenas del ordre de los Plagióstomos. „Anales de la Universidad de Chile”. 109, s. 303–315, 1902 (hiszp.).
  3. Fritz Terofal, Claus Militz: Ryby morskie. Warszawa: GeoCenter, 1996. ISBN 83-7129-306-2.
  4. Włodzimierz Załachowski: Ryby. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, 1997. ISBN 83-01-12286-2.
  5. K. Kowalska, J.M. Rembiszewski & H. Rolik: Ryby. Warszawa: Wiedza Powszechna, 1973, s. 118, seria: Mały słownik zoologiczny.
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Kosogon: Brief Summary ( Polish )

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Kosogon, lis morski (Alopias vulpinus) – gatunek morskiej ryby chrzęstnoszkieletowej z rodziny kosogonowatych (Alopiidae). Poławiana gospodarczo i w wędkarstwie.

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Alopias vulpinus ( Portuguese )

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Alopias vulpinus é uma espécie de peixe pertencente à família Alopiidae.

A autoridade científica da espécie é Bonnaterre, tendo sido descrita no ano de 1788.

Nomes comuns

Dá pelos seguintes nomes comuns: raposo[1], peixe-raposo[2], arrequim[3], peixe-alecrim[4], peixe-rato[5], zorra ou zorro[6], tubarão-raposo, tubarão-zorra, tubarão-zorro e zorro-cauda-longa (Moçambique)[7].

Portugal

Encontra-se presente em Portugal, onde é uma espécie nativa.

Descrição

Trata-se de uma espécie marinha. Atinge os 550 cm de comprimento total , com base de indivíduos de sexo indeterminado.

Referências

  1. Infopédia. «raposo | Definição ou significado de raposo no Dicionário Infopédia da Língua Portuguesa». Infopédia - Dicionários Porto Editora. Consultado em 3 de junho de 2021
  2. Infopédia. «peixe-raposo | Definição ou significado de peixe-raposo no Dicionário Infopédia da Língua Portuguesa». Infopédia - Dicionários Porto Editora. Consultado em 3 de junho de 2021
  3. Infopédia. «arrequim | Definição ou significado de arrequim no Dicionário Infopédia da Língua Portuguesa». Infopédia - Dicionários Porto Editora. Consultado em 3 de junho de 2021
  4. Infopédia. «peixe-alecrim | Definição ou significado de peixe-alecrim no Dicionário Infopédia da Língua Portuguesa». Infopédia - Dicionários Porto Editora. Consultado em 3 de junho de 2021
  5. Infopédia. «peixe-rato | Definição ou significado de peixe-rato no Dicionário Infopédia da Língua Portuguesa». Infopédia - Dicionários Porto Editora. Consultado em 3 de junho de 2021
  6. Infopédia. «zorro | Definição ou significado de zorro no Dicionário Infopédia da Língua Portuguesa». Infopédia - Dicionários Porto Editora. Consultado em 3 de junho de 2021
  7. «Common Name - Search Result». fishbase.org. Consultado em 16 de Fevereiro de 2010
  • Alopias vulpinus - Froese, R. and D. Pauly. Editors. 2014. FishBase. World Wide Web electronic publication. www.fishbase.org, (11/2014)

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Alopias vulpinus: Brief Summary ( Portuguese )

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Alopias vulpinus é uma espécie de peixe pertencente à família Alopiidae.

A autoridade científica da espécie é Bonnaterre, tendo sido descrita no ano de 1788.

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Rävhaj ( Swedish )

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Rävhaj (Alopias vulpinus) är en hotad hajart som förekommer i varma och tempererade havsområden världen över, i Stilla havet, Atlanten, Indiska oceanen och Medelhavet.

Utseende

Rävhajen kan bli från 2,5 upp till omkring 6 meter lång och väga 450 kilogram.[2] Ett kännetecken för arten är att stjärtfenan är påtagligt utdragen, så att den kan vara nästan lika lång som hajens kropp. Den är mörkblå till svart på ovansidan, ljus på buken.[3]

Vanor

Arten är en pelagisk haj som framför allt lever på stimfiskar. Den tar också bläckfisk. Den stora stjärtfenan används som ett vapen för att bedöva bytet.[3] Arten lever ner till över 500 meters djup, men går vanligtvis inte mycket djupare än 100 m.[4]

Fortplantning

Rävhajen föder mellan 2 och 4 levande ungar.[4] De är mycket stora vid födseln, från 120 till 150 cm.[3]

Utbredning

Rävhajen finns i de flesta tropiska till tempererade hav.[4] I skandinaviska farvatten förekommer rävhajen upp till Nordsjön och mellersta Norge. Den går sällsynt in i Skagerack och Kattegatt.[3]

Referenser

  1. ^ Goldman, K.J. et al. (2007). Alopias vulpinus (på engelska). IUCN:s rödlista. http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/39339/0. Läst 5 maj 2010.
  2. ^ Robin Street (1999). Alopias vulpinus thresher shark” (på engelska). Animal Diversity Web, Michigan University. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Alopias_vulpinus.html. Läst 24 juli 2010.
  3. ^ [a b c d] Nielsen, Lars; Svedberg, Ulf (2006). Våra fiskar. Stockholm: Prisma. sid. 36. ISBN 91-518-4572-5
  4. ^ [a b c] Compagno, Leonard; Dando, Marc; Fowler, Sarah (2005) (på engelska). Sharks of the World. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. sid. 180. ISBN 978-0-691-12072-0
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Rävhaj: Brief Summary ( Swedish )

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Rävhaj (Alopias vulpinus) är en hotad hajart som förekommer i varma och tempererade havsområden världen över, i Stilla havet, Atlanten, Indiska oceanen och Medelhavet.

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Акула-лисиця звичайна ( Ukrainian )

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Опис

Максимальна довжина більше 6 м, маса 500 кг. Звичайні розміри риб в ярусних уловах 170—340 см, маса — 30-100 кг. Статева зрілість настає при довжині 260 см і масі не менше 50 кг.

Довжина тіла від кінця рила до початку основи першого спинного плавця трохи більше чверті абсолютної довжини тіла. Довжина верхньої лопаті хвостового плавця — понад 50 % абсолютної довжини тіла. Зуби дрібні загострені, без зубців, зазвичай більше 29 рядів у кожній щелепі.

Забарвлення спини від темно-бронзового до чорного, боки з наближенням до черевної сторони світлішає, здобуваючи бронзовий колір із зеленуватим відтінком. Черево світле, але не яскраво-біле. Верхня сторона грудних плавців темно-коричнева. Інші плавці мають темне, майже чорне забарвлення.

Поширення

Широко поширена у всіх океанах, переважно в субтропічних районах.

Спосіб життя

Морська риба, часом утворює зграї. Накопичується на банках, над материковими і острівними схилами, у відкритих водах — поблизу фронтальних зон.

Розмноження

Яйцеживородна риба. Парування і пологи відбуваються протягом усього року.

Розвиток і зростання

У розширену частину яйцепроводів надходять запліднені яйця, укладені у шкірясті прозорі капсули овальної форми. Вихід ембріонів з капсули відбувається при довжині 8-9 см; подальший розвиток ембріонів протікає в яйцепроводах. Зазвичай в кожному яйцепроводі міститься по одному ембріону. Тривалість розвитку близько року. Народжує по 2-4 дитинчати довжиною до 150 см.

Живлення

Хижа риба. Живиться переважно зграєвими пелагичними рибами. До складу їжі входять скумбрія, луфар, шед, менхеден, пеламіда, сарган, сардина, ставрида, макрель, риба-шабля, макруруси, міктофові, дрібні тунці, а також краби, креветки, восьминоги і кальмари.

Міграції

У теплу пору року ця акула робить міграції у моря помірного поясу. Наприклад, в Атлантичному океані вона доходить влітку до затоки Св. Лаврентія і до Лофотенских островів (Північна Норвегія). В Індійському океані відомий випадок переміщення міченої акули за два роки на 840 миль.

Промисел і використання

При ярусному лові у відкритих водах становить до 20 % загального вилову акул. Спеціалізований промисел не ведеться. Врахований світовий вилов (т): 1992 р. — 105, 1994 р. — 34, 1996 р. — 20, 1997 р. — 67, 1998 р. — 393, 1999 р. — 495, 2000 р. — 650. Ловиться пелагічними ярусами; 70-90 % уловів у відкритих водах припадає на горизонти 180—265 м, а у прибережних водах і на банках — на 85-140 м.

У Франції вживається в їжу в свіжому вигляді. У нашій країні використовується для виготовлення кормового борошна; з печінки отримують жир.

Примітки

Посилання


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Alopias vulpinus ( Vietnamese )

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Alopias vulpinus là loài cá nhám đuôi dài lớn nhất trong họ cá nhám đuôi dài, dài đến 6 m (20 ft). Khoảng một nửa chiều dài của nó là thùy trên dài của vây đuôi. Với một cơ thể thuôn, mõm nhọn ngắn, và đôi mắt có kích thước khiêm tốn, loài cá này giống như (và thường bị nhầm lẫn với) Alopias pelagicus. Nó có thể được phân biệt với loài sau bởi màu trắng của bụng của nó kéo dài trong một dải trên chân của vây ngực. Alopias vulpinus phân phối trong các vùng nước nhiệt đớiôn trên khắp thế giới, mặc dù nó thích nhiệt độ lạnh. Nó có thể được tìm thấy cả hai gần bờ và trong đại dương mở, từ bề mặt đến độ sâu 550 mét. Nó là loài di cư theo mùa và trải qua mùa hè tại khu vực có vĩ độ thấp hơn.

Tham khảo

  1. ^ Goldman, K.J.; Baum, J.; Cailliet, G.M.; Cortés, E.; Kohin, S.; Macías, D.; Megalofonou, P.; Perez, M.; Soldo, A.; Trejo, T. (2009). “Alopias vulpinus”. Sách Đỏ IUCN các loài bị đe dọa. Phiên bản 2011.2. Liên minh Bảo tồn Thiên nhiên Quốc tế.
  2. ^ Compagno, L.J.V. (2002). Sharks of the World: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date (Volume 2). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. tr. 86–88. ISBN 92-5-104543-7.

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Alopias vulpinus: Brief Summary ( Vietnamese )

provided by wikipedia VI

Alopias vulpinus là loài cá nhám đuôi dài lớn nhất trong họ cá nhám đuôi dài, dài đến 6 m (20 ft). Khoảng một nửa chiều dài của nó là thùy trên dài của vây đuôi. Với một cơ thể thuôn, mõm nhọn ngắn, và đôi mắt có kích thước khiêm tốn, loài cá này giống như (và thường bị nhầm lẫn với) Alopias pelagicus. Nó có thể được phân biệt với loài sau bởi màu trắng của bụng của nó kéo dài trong một dải trên chân của vây ngực. Alopias vulpinus phân phối trong các vùng nước nhiệt đớiôn trên khắp thế giới, mặc dù nó thích nhiệt độ lạnh. Nó có thể được tìm thấy cả hai gần bờ và trong đại dương mở, từ bề mặt đến độ sâu 550 mét. Nó là loài di cư theo mùa và trải qua mùa hè tại khu vực có vĩ độ thấp hơn.

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Обыкновенная морская лисица ( Russian )

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Эта статья — об акуле. О скате см. Морская лисица.
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Хвост лисьей акулы

Морфологический и аллозимный анализ выявил, что лисья акула является базальным членом клады, в которую также входят большеглазая и пелагическая лисьи акулы[9][12]. Возможность существования четвёртого неописанного до сих пор вида, принадлежащего к роду лисьих акул и наиболее близкородственного Alopias vulpinus, была отвергнута после аллозимного анализа, проведённого в 1995 году[6][13].

Ареал

Ареал обыкновенных морских лисиц охватывает умеренные и тропические воды по всему миру. В западной Атлантике они распространены от Ньюфаундленда до Мексиканского залива, хотя у берегов Новой Англии появляются редко, а также от Венесуэлы до Аргентины. В восточной части Атлантического океана они обитают от Северного моря и Британских островов до Ганы, включая Мадейру, Азоры и Средиземное море, а также от Анголы до ЮАР. В Индо-Тихоокеанской области лисьи акулы встречаются от Танзании до Индии, на Мальдивах, у берегов Японии, Кореи, юго-востока Китая, Суматры, восточного побережья Австралии и Новой Зеландии. Также они попадаются вокруг многочисленных островов Тихого океана, включая Новую Каледонию, острова Общества, Табуаэран и Гавайи. В восточной части Тихого океана они отмечены в прибрежных водах от Британской Колумбии до Чили, в том числе в Калифорнийском заливе[6][9].

Лисьи акулы совершают сезонные миграции, перемещаясь в высокие широты вслед за массами тёплой воды. В восточной части Тихого океана в конце лета и начале осени самцы совершают более длительные миграции по сравнению с самками, достигая острова Ванкувер. Молодые акулы предпочитают оставаться в природных питомниках[12]. Вероятно, в восточной части Тихого океана и в западной части Индийского океана существуют отдельные популяции с различным жизненным циклом. Межокеанические миграции отсутствуют[14]. В северо-западной части Индийского океана с января по май, когда на свет появляется потомство, наблюдается территориальная и вертикальная сегрегация по полу[15]. Анализ митохондриальной ДНК выявил существенные региональные генетические вариации лисьих акул, обитающих в разных океанах. Этот факт подтверждает гипотезу относительно того, что акулы из разных мест обитания, несмотря на миграции, не скрещиваются между собой[16].

Несмотря на то, что лисьих акул иногда видят в прибрежной зоне, они в основном ведут пелагический образ жизни и предпочитают держаться в открытом море, опускаясь на глубину до 550 м. Молодых акул чаще можно встретить на мелководье недалеко от берега[17].

Описание

Характерной чертой лисьих акул является сильно удлинённая верхняя лопасть хвостового плавника, длина которой может равняться длине тела. Обыкновенные морские лисицы — активные хищники; с помощью хвоста они способны оглушить жертву. У них крепкое тело в форме торпеды и короткая, широкая голова с коническим, заострённым рылом. Имеются 5 пар коротких жаберных щелей, причём последние две щели расположены над длинными и узкими грудными плавниками. Рот небольшой, изогнут в виде арки. Во рту имеются 32—53 верхних и 25—50 нижних зубных рядов. Зубы мелкие, без зазубрин. Глаза небольшие. Третье веко отсутствует[9][12].

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Обыкновенных морских лисиц можно отличить от прочих лисьих акул по характерной форме головы и окраске дорсальной поверхности грудных плавников

Длинные серповидные грудные плавники сужаются к узким заострённым кончикам. Первый спинной плавник довольно высокий и расположен ближе к основанию грудных плавников. Брюшные плавники приблизительно одного размера с первым спинным плавником, у самцов имеются тонкие, длинные птеригоподии. Второй спинной и анальный плавники крошечного размера. Перед хвостовым плавником имеется дорсальная и вентральная выемки в форме полумесяца. У края верхней лопасти расположена небольшая вентральная выемка. Нижняя лопасть короткая, но развитая[9][18].

Кожа лисьих акул покрыта маленькими, перекрывающими друг друга плакоидными чешуйками, каждая из которых несет на себе по 3 гребня. Задний край чешуек оканчивается 3—5 маргинальными зубцами. Окраска дорсальной поверхности тела от металлического лилово-коричневого до серого цвета, бока синеватые, брюхо белое. Белая окраска простирается до основания грудных и брюшных плавников — это отличает лисьих акул от схожих с ними пелагических лисьих акул, у которых пятна у основания плавников отсутствуют. Возможна белая окантовка кончиков грудных плавников[9][18].

Обыкновенные морские лисицы являются самым крупным представителем семейства, они достигают длины 7,6 м[17] и массы 510 кг[19].

Биология

Обыкновенные морские лисицы — отличные пловцы и активные хищники. Нередко они полностью выпрыгивают из воды.[20]. У обыкновенных морских лисиц по бокам тела пролегает полоса аэробной мускулатуры, способной мощно сокращаться в течение продолжительного времени[15]. Кроме того, система кровообращения у них модифицирована и позволяет удерживать метаболическую тепловую энергию[21]. Существует механизм, действующий как противотоковый теплообменник. Подобное гомологичное строение, но в ещё в более развитой форме, наблюдается у сельдевых акул. Эта структура представляет собой полосу красной мускулатуры, расположенную вдоль каждого бока, которая тесно связана с кровеносными сосудами (rete mirabileruen). От этой мышечной полосы через сосуды вглубь тела акулы передаётся метаболическое тепло, что позволяет поддерживать и регулировать температуру организма. Внутренняя температура тела обыкновенных морских лисиц в среднем на 2 °C выше температуры окружающей морской воды, хотя возможны индивидуальные различия[15]. В отличие от большеглазых и пелагических акул у Alopias vulpinus отсутствует глазничная rete mirabile, которая защищает от температурных колебаний глаза и мозг[22].

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Лисья акула, которая зацепилась за крюк хвостом

Молодые обыкновенные морские лисицы могут стать жертвой крупных акул. Взрослые акулы не имеют врагов в естественной природе, за исключением косаток у берегов Новой Зеландии[23]. На обыкновенных морских лисицах паразитируют простейшие Giardia intestinalis[24], трематоды Campula oblonga[25] и Paronatrema vaginicola[26], ленточные черви Acanthobothrium coronatum[27], Anthobothrium laciniatum[28], Crossobothrium angustum,[29], Hepatoxylon trichiuri, Molicola uncinatus,[30], Paraorygmatobothrium exiguum[31], P. filiforme[32] и Sphyriocephalus tergetinu[33], а также веслоногие ракообразные Dinemoura discrepans, Echthrogaleus denticulatus[34], Gangliopus pyriformis[35], Kroeyerina benzorum[36], Nemesis aggregatus, N. robusta, N. tiburo[37], Nesippus orientalis[38] и Pandarus smithii[34].

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Лисьи акулы питаются стайными рыбами, такими как светящийся анчоус

Питание

На 97 % рацион обыкновенных морских лисиц состоит из костистых рыб, в основном небольших и стайных, таких как луфарь, скумбрии, сельди, сарганы и светящиеся анчоусы. Перед тем как атаковать, акулы кружат вокруг косяка и уплотняют его ударами хвоста. Иногда они охотятся парами или небольшими группами. Кроме того, их добычей могут стать крупные одиночные рыбы, например, пилозубы, а также кальмары и прочие пелагические беспозвоночные[17]. У берегов Калифорнии они охотятся в основном на калифорнийского анчоуса Engraulis mordax, орегонскую мерлузу Merluccius productus, перуанскую сардину, японскую скумбрию, кальмара Loligo opalescens и краба Pleuroncodes planipes. В период холодного океанографического режима состав их рациона беднее, тогда как в периоды потепления спектр питания расширяется[39].

Есть многочисленные сообщения о том, как лисьи акулы верхней лопастью хвостового плавника глушат добычу. Зафиксированы неоднократные случаи, когда они совершая удар зацеплялись хвостом за ярус. В июле 1914 года Рассел Дж. Коулз стал свидетелем того, как обыкновенная морская лисица щелчком хвоста отправляла добычу в пасть, а если она промахивалась, рыба отлетала на значительное расстояние. 14 апреля 1923 года океанограф У. Е. Аллен, стоя на пирсе Океанографического Института Скрипса, услышал неподалёку громкий всплеск и увидел в 100 метрах завихрение воды, которое мог произвести нырнувший морской лев. Спустя мгновение над поверхностью воды поднялся метровый плоский хвост. Далее учёный наблюдал за тем, как лисья акулы преследовала калифорнийскую атерину Atherinopsis californiensis. Настигнув добычу, она хлестнула её хвостом, словно кучерским кнутом, и сильно поранила её. Зимой 1865 года ирландский ихтиолог Гарри Блейк-Нокс наблюдал за тем, как в Дублинском заливе обыкновенная морская лисица хлестнула хвостом раненую гагару (возможно, это была черноклювая гагара), которую затем проглотила. Впоследствии достоверность отчёта Блейка-Нокса подвергалась сомнению на основании того, что хвост лисьей акулы недостаточно жёсткий или мускулистый, чтобы нанести такой удар[15].

Жизненный цикл

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Детёныши лисьей акулы

Лисьи акулы размножаются яйцеживорождением. Спаривание происходит летом, обычно в июле и августе, а роды протекают с марта по июнь. Беременность длится 9 месяцев. Оплодотворение и развитие эмбрионов происходит внутриутробно. После опустошения желточного мешка эмбрион начинает питаться неоплодотворёнными яйцами (внутриутробная оофагия)[12]. Зубы эмбрионов имеют форму колышков и не функциональны, поскольку покрыты мягкой тканью. По мере развития они становятся всё более похожи по форме на зубы взрослых акул и «прорезываются» незадолго до рождения[40]. В восточной части Тихого океана численность помёта колеблется от 2 до 4 (редко 6) новорождённых, а в восточной части Атлантики — от 3 до 7[14].

Длина новорожденных составляет 114—160 см и напрямую зависит от размера матери. Молодые акулы прибавляют в год по 50 см, тогда как взрослые вырастают только на 10 см[17]. Возраст достижения половой зрелости зависит от места обитания. В северо-восточной части Тихого океана самцы созревают при длине 3,3 м, что соответствует возрасту 5 лет, а самки при длине 2,6—4,5, что соответствует возрасту 7 лет. Продолжительность жизни не менее 15 лет, а максимальный срок — около 45—50 лет[12][14].

Взаимодействие с человеком

Несмотря на крупные размеры считается, что обыкновенные морские лисицы не представляют опасности. Они пугливы и моментально уплывают при появлении человека. Дайверы свидетельствуют о том, что к ним трудно приблизиться. В International Shark Attack File зарегистрировано одно спровоцированное нападение лисьей акулы на человека и 4 атаки на лодки, совершённые, вероятно, пойманными на крючок акулами. Есть неподтверждённые данные о нападении на гарпунёра у берегов Новой Зеландии[15].

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Исследователи из Национального управления океанических и атмосферных исследований помечают обыкновенных морских лисиц, чтобы разработать эффективные меры по их сохранению

Известный спортсмен-рыболов Фрэнк Мандас в своей книге «Sportsfishing for Sharks» пересказал старую историю. Один злополучный рыбак перегнулся через борт лодки, чтобы посмотреть на крупную рыбу, попавшуюся ему на крючок. В тот же миг он был обезглавлен ударом хвоста пятиметровой лисьей акулы. Тело рыбака опрокинулось в лодку, а голова упала в воду и найти её не удалось. Большинство авторов считают этот рассказ недостоверным[15].

Обыкновенные морские лисицы являются объектом коммерческого промысла в Японии, Испании, США, Бразилии, Уругвае, Мексике и на Тайване. Их добывают ярусами, пелагическими и жаберными сетями. Мясо, особенно плавники, высоко ценится. Его употребляют в свежем, сушёном, солёном и копчёном виде. Шкуру выделывают, из жира печени производят витамины[14].

В США коммерческий лов лисьих акул с помощью плавучих жаберных сетей на побережье Южной Каролины развивался с 1977 года. Промысел начинали 10 судов, которые использовали сети с крупной ячеёй. За 2 года флот насчитывал уже 40 кораблей. Пик пришёлся на 1982 год, когда 228 судов добыли 1091 тонну лисьих акул. После этого их численность из-за перелова резко сократилась, и в конце 80-х добыча снизилась до 300 тонн, крупные особи перестали попадаться[41]. В США до сих пор ловят лисьих акул, причём 80 % улова добывают в Тихом океане, а 15 % в Атлантике. Больше всего лисьих акул по-прежнему ловят с помощью жаберных сетей у берегов Калифорнии и Орегона, хотя основным объектом промысла там является более ценная меч-рыба Xiphius gladius, а лисьи акулы попадаются в качестве прилова. Небольшое количество этих акул добывают в Тихом океане с помощью гарпунов, мелкоячеистых дрифтерных сетей и ярусов. В Атлантике лисьи акулы чаще попадаются в качестве прилова при добыче меч-рыбы и тунца[42][43].

Из-за низкой плодовитости представители рода лисьих акул очень сильно подвержены перелову. За период с 1986 по 2000 год, согласно анализу пелагического ярусного улова, в северо-западной Атлантике численность обыкновенной морской лисицы и большеглазой лисьей акулы снизилась на 80 %[44].

Лисьи акулы ценятся спортсменами-рыболовами наравне с акулами мако. Их ловят на удочку с мультипликаторной катушкой. В качестве приманки используют наживку[45][46].

C 1990-х годов в США действует ограничение на добычу лисьих акул. Законодательно запрещено отрезать у живых акул плавники, выбрасывая тушу за борт. В Средиземном море действует запрет на использование дрифтерных сетей, но браконьеры нелегально используют такие сети длиной до 1,6 км при промысле меч-рыбы. Международный союз охраны природы присвоил этому виду статус «Уязвимый»[6].

Примечания

  1. Synonyms of Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre, 1788) в базе данных FishBase (англ.) (Проверено 27 августа 2016).
  2. Жизнь животных. Том 4. Ланцетники. Круглоротые. Хрящевые рыбы. Костные рыбы / под ред. Т. С. Раса, гл. ред. В. Е. Соколов. — 2-е изд. — М.: Просвещение, 1983. — С. 31. — 575 с.
  3. Губанов Е. П., Кондюрин В. В., Мягков Н. А. Акулы Мирового океана: Справочник-определитель. — М.: Агропромиздат, 1986. — С. 59. — 272 с.
  4. Решетников Ю. С., Котляр А. Н., Расс Т. С., Шатуновский М. И. Пятиязычный словарь названий животных. Рыбы. Латинский, русский, английский, немецкий, французский. / под общей редакцией акад. В. Е. Соколова. — М.: Рус. яз., 1989. — С. 22. — 12 500 экз.ISBN 5-200-00237-0.
  5. Жизнь животных: в 6-ти томах / Под ред. профессоров Н. А. Гладкова, А. В. Михеева. — М.: Просвещение, 1970.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Alopias vulpinus (англ.). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
  7. Alopias vulpinus (англ.) в базе данных FishBase.
  8. Bonnaterre, J. P. (1788). Tableau encyclopédique et methodique des trois règnes de la nature. Panckoucke. pp. 9.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Compagno, L. J. V. Sharks of the World: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date (Volume 2). — Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2002. — P. 86—88. — ISBN 92-5-104543-7.
  10. Большой древнегреческий словарь (неопр.) (недоступная ссылка). Проверено 7 января 2015. Архивировано 12 февраля 2013 года.
  11. Большой латинско-русский словарь. (неопр.). Проверено 7 января 2015.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ebert, D. A. Sharks, Rays, and Chimaeras of California. — California: University of California Press, 2003. — P. 105—107. — ISBN 0520234847.
  13. Eitner, B. Systematics of the Genus Alopias (Lamniformes: Alopiidae) with Evidence for the Existence of an Unrecognized Species (англ.) // Copeia (American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists). — 1995. — Vol. 3. — P. 562—571. — DOI:10.2307/1446753.
  14. 1 2 3 4 Species Fact Sheets: Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre, 1788) (неопр.). FAO Fisheries and Agriculture Department. Проверено 18 января 2015.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Martin, R.A. Biology of the Common Thresher (Alopias vulpinus) (неопр.). ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research. Проверено 5 января 2013. Архивировано 11 января 2013 года.
  16. Trejo, T. (2005). «Global phylogeography of thresher sharks (Alopias spp.) inferred from mitochondrial DNA control region sequences». M.Sc. thesis. Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, California State University.
  17. 1 2 3 4 Jordan, V. Biological Profiles: Thresher Shark. (неопр.). Florida Museum of Natural History.. Проверено 7 января 2013. Архивировано 11 января 2013 года.
  18. 1 2 Castro, J. I. The Sharks of North America. — Oxford University Press, 2011. — P. 241—247. — ISBN 9780195392944.
  19. Douglas, H. Biggest thresher shark ever: caught off Cornish coast (again) (англ.) // Newsletter of the Porcupine Marine Natural History Society. — 2007. — No. 23. — P. 24—25.
  20. Leonard, M. A. Firsthand Account of a Jumping Thresher Shark (неопр.). University of Florida Museum of Natural History. Проверено 6 января 2013. Архивировано 21 января 2013 года.
  21. «Family Alopiidae: Thresher Sharks — 3 species» (англ.). ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research. Проверено 5 января 2013.
  22. Weng, K. C. and Block, B. A. Diel vertical migration of the bigeye thresher shark (Alopias superciliosus), a species possessing orbital retia mirabilia (англ.) // Fishery Bulletin — National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. — 2004. — Vol. 102, no. 1. — P. 221—229.
  23. Visser, I. N. First observations of feeding on thresher (Alopias vulpinus) and hammerhead (Sphyrna zygaena) sharks by killer whales (Orcinus orca) specialising on elasmobranch prey (англ.) // Aquatic Mammals. — 2005. — Vol. 31, no. 1. — P. 83—88. — DOI:10.1578/AM.31.1.2005.83.
  24. Lasek-Nesselquist, E.; Bogomolni, A. L.; Gast, R. J.; Welch, D. M.; Ellis, J. C.; Sogin, M. L.; Moore, M. J. Molecular characterization of Giardia intestinalis haplotypes in marine animals: variation and zoonotic potential // Diseases of Aquatic Organisms. — 2008. — Vol. 81, № 1. — P. 39—51. — DOI:10.3354/dao01931. — PMID 18828561.
  25. Adams, A. M.; Hoberg, E. P.; McAlpine, D. F.; Clayden, S. L. Occurrence and morphological comparisons of Campula oblonga (Digenea: Campulidae), including a report from an atypical host, the thresher shark, Alopias vulpinus // Journal of Parasitology. — 1998. — Vol. 84, № 2. — P. 435—438.
  26. Shvetsova, L. S. Trematodes of cartilaginous fishes of the Pacific Ocean // Izvestiya TINRO. — 1994. — Vol. 117. — P. 46—64.
  27. Parukhin, A. M. On the species composition of the helminth fauna of fishes in the South Atlantic // Материалы Научной Конференции Всесоюзного Общества Гельминтологов. — 1966. — Вып. 3. — С. 219—222.
  28. Yamaguti, S. (1934). «Studies on the Helminth fauna of Japan. Part 4. Cestodes of fishes». Japanese Journal of Zoology 6: 1—112.
  29. Euzet, L. (1959). «Recherches sur les cestodes tetraphyllides des selaciens des cotes de France.» Theses de Ph.D. Faculte des Sciences, Université de Montpellier.
  30. Bates, R. M. (1990). «A checklist of the Trypanorhyncha (Platyhelminthes: Cestoda) of the world (1935—1985)». National Museum of Wales, Zoological Series 1: 1—218.
  31. Ruhnke, T. R. «Paraorygmatobothrium barberi n. g., n. sp. (Cestoda: Tetraphyllidea), with amended descriptions of two species transferred to the genus» // Systematic Parasitology. — 1994. — Vol. 28, № 1. — P. 65—79. — DOI:10.1007/BF00006910.
  32. Ruhnke, T. R. (1996). «Systematic resolution of Crossobothrium Linton, 1889, and taxonomic information on four allocated to that genus». Journal of Parasitology 82(5): 793—800.
  33. Gomez Cabrera, S. (1983). «Forma adulta de Sphyriocephalus tergetinus (Cestoda: Tetrarhynchidea) en Alopias vulpinus (Peces: Selacea)». Revista Iberica de Parasitologia 43(3): 305.
  34. 1 2 Cressey, R. F. (1967). «Revision of the Family Pandaridae (Copepoda: Caligoida)». Proceedings of the United States National Museum 121(3570): 1—13.
  35. Izawa, K. Free-living stages of the parasitic copepod, Gangliopus pyriformis Gerstaecker, 1854 (Siphonostomatoida, Pandaridae) reared from eggs // Crustaceana. — 2010. — Vol. 83, № 7. — P. 829—837. — DOI:10.1163/001121610X498863.
  36. Deets, G. B. Phylogenetic analysis and revision of Kroeyerina Wilson, 1932 (Siphonostomatoida: Kroyeriidae), copepods parasitic on chondrichthyans, with descriptions of four new species and the erection of a new genus, Prokroyeria // Canadian Journal of Zoology. — 1987. — Vol. 65, № 9. — P. 2121—2148. — DOI:10.1139/z87-327.
  37. Hewitt G. C. (1969). «Some New Zealand parasitic Copepoda of the family Eudactylinidae». Zoology Publications from Victoria University of Wellington 49: 1—31.
  38. Dippenaar, S.M.; Jordaan, B.P. «Nesippus orientalis Heller, 1868 (Pandaridae : Siphonostomatoida): descriptions of the adult, young and immature females, a first description of the male and aspects of their functional morphology» // Systematic Parasitology. — 2006. — Vol. 65, № 1. — P. 27—41. — DOI:10.1007/s11230-006-9037-7.
  39. Preti, A., Smith, S. E. and Ramon, D. A. Diet differences in the thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus) during transition from a warm-water regime to a cool-water regime off California-Oregon, 1998—2000 // California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations Report. — 2004. — Vol. 4. — P. 118—125.
  40. Shimada, K. «Teeth of embryos in lamniform sharks (Chondrichthyes: Elasmobranchii)». Environmental Biology of Fishes. — 2002. — Vol. 63, № 3. — P. 309—319. — DOI:10.1023/A:1014392211903.
  41. Mazurek, R. (2001). Seafood Watch Fishery Report: Sharks Volume I Common Thresher. MBA SeafoodWatch.
  42. Atlantic Common Thresher Shark (неопр.). FishWatch - U.S. Seafood Facts. Проверено 7 января 2013. Архивировано 21 января 2013 года.
  43. Pacific Common Thresher Shark (неопр.). FishWatch - U.S. Seafood Facts. Проверено 7 января 2013. Архивировано 21 января 2013 года.
  44. Baum, J. K., Myers, R. A., Kehler, D. G., Worm, B., Harley, S. J. and Doherty, P. A. (2003). Collapse and conservation of shark populations in the Northwest Atlantic. Science 299: 389—392.
  45. Cacutt, L. The Big-Game Fishing Handbook.. — Stackpole Books., 2000. — ISBN 0-8117-2673-8.
  46. Rudow, L. Rudow's Guide to Fishing the Mid Atlantic: Coastal Bays and Ocean. — Geared Up Publications, 2006. — ISBN 0-9787278-0-0.
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Обыкновенная морская лисица: Brief Summary ( Russian )

provided by wikipedia русскую Википедию
Эта статья — об акуле. О скате см. Морская лисица.  src= Хвост лисьей акулы

Морфологический и аллозимный анализ выявил, что лисья акула является базальным членом клады, в которую также входят большеглазая и пелагическая лисьи акулы. Возможность существования четвёртого неописанного до сих пор вида, принадлежащего к роду лисьих акул и наиболее близкородственного Alopias vulpinus, была отвергнута после аллозимного анализа, проведённого в 1995 году.

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細尾長尾鯊 ( Chinese )

provided by wikipedia 中文维基百科
二名法 Alopias vulpinus
Bonnaterre, 1788 Alopias vulpinus distmap.png

細尾長尾鯊學名Alopias vulpinus),又名狐形長尾鯊狐鮫,是軟骨魚綱板鰓亞綱鼠鯊目長尾鯊科的一

分布

本魚分布於全球各大洋熱帶海域。

深度

水深0至550公尺。

特徵

本魚體延長,眼小,頂端狹窄的胸鰭,一個頂端狹窄的尾鰭,胸鰭基底上的一個顯著的白色斑塊。第二背鰭起源在腹鰭的後頂端正後方。尾鰭上葉非常長而帶狀的, 大約與或一樣長長度超過其他鯊魚的長度;下葉短但是發展良好。牠的身體呈褐色或灰色,腹部呈白色。牠們可以生長達2.5尺長及750磅重。

生態

本魚棲息於大陸棚、近海,經常會成群或成對的獵食,用牠們的尾巴來擊暈獵物。牠們主要食其他的魚類魷魚,亦有捕食海鳥的情況。

 src=
細尾長尾鯊的繪圖

細尾長尾鯊經常的遷徙,在春天會向北游繁殖。牠們是卵生的,每胎約有2至6頭幼鯊,出生時達5尺長。

經濟利用

細尾長尾鯊在很多國家都是食物及競技魚類。牠們的皮會被製成皮革。牠們對人類沒有危害,但卻因經常被漁網所纏住,成為了鯖魚漁民的滋擾。除了人類之外,已知並沒有獵食細尾長尾鯊的動物

參考

  1. ^ More oceanic sharks added to the IUCN Red List (新闻稿). IUCN. 2007-02-22 [2007-02-25]. All three species of thresher sharks, known for scythe-like tails that can be as long as their bodies - were listed as Vulnerable globally.

外部連結

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細尾長尾鯊: Brief Summary ( Chinese )

provided by wikipedia 中文维基百科

細尾長尾鯊(學名Alopias vulpinus),又名狐形長尾鯊或狐鮫,是軟骨魚綱板鰓亞綱鼠鯊目長尾鯊科的一

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マオナガ ( Japanese )

provided by wikipedia 日本語
マオナガ Thresher shark.jpg
マオナガ
Alopias vulpinus
保全状況評価[1] VULNERABLE
(IUCN Red List Ver.3.1 (2001))
Status iucn3.1 VU.svg 分類 : 動物界 Animalia : 脊索動物門 Chordata 亜門 : 脊椎動物亜門 Vertebrata : 軟骨魚綱 Chondrichthyes 亜綱 : 板鰓亜綱 Elasmobranchii : ネズミザメ目 Lamniformes : オナガザメ科 Alopiidae : オナガザメ属 Alopias : マオナガ A. vulpinus 学名 Alopias vulpinus
(Bonnaterre, 1788) 英名 Common thresher Alopias vulpinus distmap.png
マオナガの生息域

マオナガ(真尾長) Alopias vulpinusCommon thresher)は、ネズミザメ目オナガザメ科に属するサメ。世界中の熱帯から亜寒帯海域の沿岸から外洋まで広く分布する。オナガザメ類では最大で、全長7.6mに達する。外見はニタリ A. pelagicus と非常に類似し、しばしば見間違えられる。小魚などを尾鰭で攻撃し、捕食する。卵食型の胎生。3〜8年で成熟し、毎年2〜4尾の子どもを産む。繁殖速度を上回る過剰漁獲により世界中で数が減少している[1]

分布[編集]

世界中の熱帯から亜寒帯海域まで広く分布し、温帯海域に最も多い。沿岸から外洋まで生息し、高度回遊性である。海表面近くにいることが多いが、水深550mまで見られる[2]。幼魚は温帯の沿岸域で過ごす。

形態[編集]

オナガザメ科の最大種。最大で全長760cm、体重348kgに達する[3]。体型は流線形。尾鰭は胴体とほぼ同じ長さがある。背側の体色は灰色から黒色で、青みがかっている。体側はメタリックシルバー、もしくは銅色。腹側は白色である。腹側の白色帯は胸鰭基底の上まで伸びる。ニタリはこの白色帯が胸鰭基底の上に張り出さないことから、区別可能である。

生態[編集]

 src=
マオナガ

餌生物は主に外洋性浮魚類である。底生性魚類やイカタコ甲殻類、まれに海鳥も捕食する[4]。長い尾鰭は捕食行動に関与し、小魚などを叩いて気絶させたり致命傷を与えると考えられる。また魚の群れを寄せ集めるとも考えられている。延縄の鉤にはオナガザメの口ではなく尾鰭がかかっている場合が多い。

胎生胎盤を形成しない卵食型。妊娠期間は9ヶ月[4]。産仔数は通常2〜4尾で、毎年出産する[2]。産まれたときのサイズは114〜160cm[4]、5〜6kg[2]。3〜8年で成熟し、寿命は45〜50年と推定される[4]

人との関わり[編集]

マグロ延縄などで混獲される。肉や鰭、皮、肝油が利用される[2]。スポーツ・フィッシングの対象になる。他のオナガザメ類と同様、もともと低い繁殖速度を大幅に上回る量の漁獲があり、数は減少している。

人には危害を加えないが、船を攻撃することはある[2]

参考文献[編集]

  1. ^ a b Goldman, K.J., Baum, J., Cailliet, G.M., Cortés, E., Kohin, S., Macías, D., Megalofonou, P., Perez, M., Soldo, A. & Trejo, T. 2007. Alopias vulpinus. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.1. . Downloaded on 04 July 2011.
  2. ^ a b c d e Biological Profiles: Thresher Florida Museum of Natural History, Ichthyology Department.
  3. ^ Alopias vulpinus Froese, R. and D. Pauly. Editors. 2011.FishBase. World Wide Web electronic publication. www.fishbase.org, version (06/2011).
  4. ^ a b c d Leonard J. V. Compagno (2002) "Sharks of the world: An annotated and illustrated catalogue of shark species known to date" Volume 2, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States. pp.86-88.
 src= ウィキメディア・コモンズには、マオナガに関連するカテゴリがあります。
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マオナガ: Brief Summary ( Japanese )

provided by wikipedia 日本語

マオナガ(真尾長) Alopias vulpinus(Common thresher)は、ネズミザメ目オナガザメ科に属するサメ。世界中の熱帯から亜寒帯海域の沿岸から外洋まで広く分布する。オナガザメ類では最大で、全長7.6mに達する。外見はニタリ A. pelagicus と非常に類似し、しばしば見間違えられる。小魚などを尾鰭で攻撃し、捕食する。卵食型の胎生。3〜8年で成熟し、毎年2〜4尾の子どもを産む。繁殖速度を上回る過剰漁獲により世界中で数が減少している。

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ウィキペディアの著者と編集者
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wikipedia 日本語

흰배환도상어 ( Korean )

provided by wikipedia 한국어 위키백과

흰배환도상어(학명: Alopias vulpinus)는 악상어목에 속하는 환도상어의 일종이다. 전 세계의 열대에서 아한대 해역의 연안으로부터 외양까지 널리 분포한다. 환도상어류 중에서 가장 크며, 전체 길이는 8m에 달한다. 겉모습이 원양환도상어(A. pelagicus)와 유사하여, 자주 혼동한다. 작은 물고기 등을 꼬리지느러미로 공격하여 포식한다. 난태생이다. 3~8년이면 성숙해지며, 매년 2~4마리의 새끼를 낳는다. 번식 속도를 웃도는 남획으로 개체수가 감소하고 있다.[1]

각주

  1. Goldman, K.J., Baum, J., Cailliet, G.M., Cortés, E., Kohin, S., Macías, D., Megalofonou, P., Perez, M., Soldo, A. & Trejo, T. 2007. Alopias vulpinus. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.1. . Downloaded on 04 July 2011.
  2. Compagno, L.J.V. (2002). 《Sharks of the World: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Shark Species Known to Date (Volume 2)》. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 86–88쪽. ISBN 92-5-104543-7.
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흰배환도상어: Brief Summary ( Korean )

provided by wikipedia 한국어 위키백과

흰배환도상어(학명: Alopias vulpinus)는 악상어목에 속하는 환도상어의 일종이다. 전 세계의 열대에서 아한대 해역의 연안으로부터 외양까지 널리 분포한다. 환도상어류 중에서 가장 크며, 전체 길이는 8m에 달한다. 겉모습이 원양환도상어(A. pelagicus)와 유사하여, 자주 혼동한다. 작은 물고기 등을 꼬리지느러미로 공격하여 포식한다. 난태생이다. 3~8년이면 성숙해지며, 매년 2~4마리의 새끼를 낳는다. 번식 속도를 웃도는 남획으로 개체수가 감소하고 있다.

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Description

provided by World Register of Marine Species
Possibly to 609 cm. Also in coastal waters. Eats schooling fish, including mackerels, bluefishes, clupeids, needlefishes, lancetfishes and lanternfishes, also squids, octopi and other pelagic crustaceans, and rarely seabirds. Spatial and depth segregation by sex in northwestern Indian Ocean populations. Uses its long caudal fin to bunch up and even stun schooling prey (Ref. 2850). Unconfirmed boat attacks. Valued for its meat, liver, hide and fins; utilized fresh, dried-salted, smoked and frozen (Ref. 9987).

Reference

Froese, R. & D. Pauly (Editors). (2023). FishBase. World Wide Web electronic publication. version (02/2023).

license
cc-by-4.0
copyright
WoRMS Editorial Board
contributor
Edward Vanden Berghe [email]

Diet

provided by World Register of Marine Species
Bluefish, menhaden, shad, mackerel and other schooling fishes, as well as squid

Reference

North-West Atlantic Ocean species (NWARMS)

license
cc-by-4.0
copyright
WoRMS Editorial Board
contributor
Kennedy, Mary [email]

Distribution

provided by World Register of Marine Species
Newfoundland to Cuba

Reference

North-West Atlantic Ocean species (NWARMS)

license
cc-by-4.0
copyright
WoRMS Editorial Board
contributor
Kennedy, Mary [email]

Habitat

provided by World Register of Marine Species
warm and temperate areas of all the World's oceans

Reference

North-West Atlantic Ocean species (NWARMS)

license
cc-by-4.0
copyright
WoRMS Editorial Board
contributor
Kennedy, Mary [email]

Habitat

provided by World Register of Marine Species
nektonic

Reference

North-West Atlantic Ocean species (NWARMS)

license
cc-by-4.0
copyright
WoRMS Editorial Board
contributor
Kennedy, Mary [email]