Rubber Rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa is widespread, often abundant, and complex. This treatment is based largely on that by L. C. Anderson (1986b). Uncertainty about the specimen used by Pursh to establish E. nauseosa (as Chrysocoma nauseosa) is a possible source of confusion concerning the application of that name (which is in current use) and of the name Chrysothamnus speciosus Nuttall (J. L. Reveal et al. 1999). Anderson divided the species into two informal groups, the "green forms" and the "gray forms." These two groups were formalized as subspp. nauseosa and consimilis by G. L. Nesom and G. I. Baird (1993), each containing varieties. Ericameria nauseosa is reported to hybridize with other species in the genus, and hybrid and formula names have been applied to them. Their synonymies were more fully summarized by Nesom and Baird.

Ericameria ×bolanderi (A. Gray) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, based on Linosyris bolanderi A. Gray is the hybrid between E. discoidea and E. nauseosa (L. C. Anderson and J. L. Reveal 1966).

Ericameria ×uintahensis (L. C. Anderson) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, "Uinta rubber rabbitbrush," based on Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. uintahensis L. C. Anderson, is the hybrid between E. nauseosa and E. parryi (L. C. Anderson 1984).

Ericameria ×viscosa (D. D. Keck) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, based on Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. viscosus D. D. Keck, is the hybrid between E. cuneata and E. nauseosa (L. C. Anderson 1986b).

Plants 10–250 cm. Stems erect or ascending to spreading, white to green, fastigiately branched, tomentose. Leaves (usually crowded) usually ascending to spreading; blades filiform to narrowly oblanceolate (mostly adaxially sulcate to concave), 10–70 × 0.3–10 mm, midnerves mostly evident, apices acute, faces glabrous or tomentose, often gland-dotted (lacking well-defined circular pits) ; axillary fascicles absent. Heads in rounded to flat-topped, cymiform arrays (to 12 cm wide). Peduncles 1–20 mm (bracts usually 0, sometimes 1–5, reduced, scalelike). Involucres obconic to subcylindric, 6–16 × 2–4 mm. Phyllaries 10–31 in 3–5 series (often in vertical ranks), tan, ovate to lanceolate, 1.5–14 × 0.7–1.5 mm, strongly unequal, mostly chartaceous (mostly keeled), midnerves raised for nearly entire lengths, expanded apically, apices acute to obtuse, abaxial faces resinous. Ray florets 0. Disc florets (4–)5(–6); corollas 6–12 mm. Cypselae tan, turbinate to cylindric or oblanceoloid, 3–8 mm, glabrous or hairy (often ± pilose or sericeous); pappi whitish, 3–13 mm. 2n = 18.

Chrysocoma nauseosa Pallas ex Pursh, Fl. Amer. Sept. 2: 517. 1813; Chrysothamnus nauseosus (Pallas ex Pursh) Britton

Ericameria nauseosa is broadly distributed in western North America. Within the USA the range includes the three states along the Pacific Ocean eastward to North Dakota and Texas. In southwestern Canada the occurrence is over British Columbia, Alberta and Saskatchewan.

More info for the terms: fireline intensity, fuel, shrubs

Potential damage is influenced by proximity to other shrubs that provide additional fuel and increase fireline intensity. Mortality is also greater where plants have been defoliated by browsing prior to burning. Plants may lack sufficient carbohydrate reserves to sprout [99].

More info for the terms: competition, cover, density, fire use, forbs, frequency, prescribed fire, seed, shrub, shrubs, succession, tree

Rubber rabbitbrush is sensitive to competition. Sites with a dense stand of perennial grasses and forbs are less likely to be dominated by rabbitbrush after fire than those where the understory has been depleted. Burning can temporarily eliminate sagebrush and other plants that compete for water and space. Release from competition stimulates rubber rabbitbrush to produce large numbers of seed [82].



Rubber rabbitbrush biomass production remains low for 1 to 3 years after fire and then often increases rapidly [145]. Rubber rabbitbrush can be a major component of vegetation within 3 to 5 years after a burn [12]. Wright [145] reported that burning reduced rubber rabbitbrush by 59% the first year after fire near Dubois, Idaho. Three years after burning, production doubled; it tripled by the end of year 12. Rubber rabbitbrush reestablished from seed after fire in a Great Basin dry meadow. It peaked in abundance 12 years later [50].



Rubber rabbitbrush may dominate postfire shrub-grass communities in degraded condition if perennial grasses are poorly represented [149]. In many Intermountain shrub-steppe communities, seedlings of rubber rabbitbrush will occupy the sites for 10 to 15 years before big sagebrush again assumes dominance [147].



In pinyon-juniper communities of California, rubber rabbitbrush colonizes higher elevation burns (> 6,600 feet (2,000 m)). Along with other shrubs, it increases in cover and density for 30 to 50 years [135]. It serves as a "nurse shrub" and is rarely found on burns older than 47 years. Two general postfire patterns were noted in these communities: 1) understory fires followed by rapid postfire perennial grass succession, and 2) canopy fires followed by slow postfire shrub and tree succession [135]. General cover by year was as follows [135]:

year
%cover
year
%cover
year
%cover

1
0.7
33
8.3
140
0.6

8
1.7
38
1.2
160
0

9
3.2
47
5.2
---
---

13
3.2
90
2.7
---
---

18
2.6
130
---
---
---



 Immediate reductions in rubber rabbitbrush after a July burn near Kamloops, British Columbia were reported as follows [61]:


Prefire
Postfire month 14

Frequency
93.3
40

Density (n/25m2)
2.0
0.4

Cover (%)
6.5
1.2

Lyon's Research Paper
(Lyon 1971)
also provides information on prescribed fire use and postfire response of plant
species including rubber rabbitbrush.

rubber rabbitbrush

gray rabbitbrush

grey rabbitbrush

Dwarf rabbitbrush is state-listed as a watch candidate in Washington [136].

More info for the term: cover

Rubber rabbitbrush provides good cover for several species of nesting birds. It provides nesting cover for waterfowl on eastern Washington dunes. In Idaho, rubber rabbitbrush provides good nesting cover for sage grouse [46,52].


Rubber rabbitbrush is of little importance to larger mammals. Mule deer hiding/escape cover, thermal cover, and fawning cover values for rubber rabbitbrush are described as "poor" [100]. The following tables summarize reported cover value of several rubber rabbitbrush varieties by state [30]:
Typical variety: UT CO WY MT ND ----------------------------------------------------------------- Elk poor ---- poor poor ---- Mule deer fair ---- fair poor good White-tailed deer fair ---- fair ---- ---- Pronghorn fair ---- fair poor good Upland game birds good ---- good ---- ---- Waterfowl poor ---- fair ---- ---- Small nongame birds good ---- good ---- poor Small mammals good ---- good ---- poor Pungent rabbitbrush: UT CO WY MT ND ----------------------------------------------------------------- Elk poor ---- poor poor ---- Mule deer fair ---- poor poor good White-tailed deer poor ---- fair ---- ---- Pronghorn fair ---- fair poor good Upland game birds fair ---- good ---- ---- Waterfowl poor ---- good good good Small nongame birds good ---- good ---- poor Small mammals good ---- good ---- poor

More info for the terms: perfect, series, shrub

Rubber rabbitbrush is an erect round or pyramidal native shrub that typically reaches 12 to 90 inches (31-229 cm) in height [17,55]. Certain populations have been reported to reach heights of 10 to 12 feet (3.3-3.6 m) [77]. Plant spread is generally between 0.2 and 3.3 feet (0.6-1 m) [60]. Several more or less upright stems arise from the base and branch to give plants a rounded appearance.

Rubber rabbitbrush exhibits a number of adaptations for surviving in an arid environment. Leaves and stems are covered with a felt-like layer of trichomes that insulate the plant and reduce transpiration [3]. Leaves are linear and less than 0.04 inch (0.1 cm) wide [17]. Rubber rabbitbrush has a deep taproot with less well-developed laterals [8,18,19]. Flowers are perfect [17]. Stanton [123] reports that plants may be "full grown" within 4 years.

Botanical characteristics such as leaf and flower characters vary considerably among the varieties of rubber rabbitbrush [141]. Two separate series are recognized within Ericameria nauseosa, a gray form and a green form. Green forms are characterized by glabrous involucres and greenish leaves and stems (i.e., pungent, smooth-fruit, and Mojave rabbitbrushes). Gray forms have tomentose involucres and gray to whitish foliage and stems (i.e., Bigelow's rabbitbrush, white rabbitbrush, and the typical variety) [7].

Rubber rabbitbrush is widely distributed west of the 100th meridian in North America [67]. It occurs from southern British Columbia through Saskatchewan, south through the Great Plains to northern Mexico, and west to the Pacific Ocean [20,55,76]. Distribution of several varieties of Ericameria nauseosa is as follows [4,7,21,81,109]:

Sand rabbitbrush - southern Utah to northern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico

Bigelow's rabbitbrush - west and south of the Four Corners area including parts of Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado

Pungent rabbitbrush - common in the Intermountain Region and parts of the northern Great Plains; extending from Arizona and New Mexico northward to Montana and Canada and eastward into the Great Plains

White rabbitbrush - common in the Great Basin and the Great Plains and extending from California northward to Oregon and Idaho and eastward into Arizona and Utah

Rainbow Hills rabbitbrush - parts of Utah

Rush rabbitbrush - southern Utah to southwestern Colorado and northern Arizona

Broadscale rabbitbrush- occurs in parts of California and Nevada and extends eastward into Utah and northern Arizona

Mohave rabbitbrush - occurs from southern California to Nevada

Typical variety - extends from the western edge of the Great Plains northward to Canada and southward into Colorado and the Dakotas

Great Basin rabbitbrush - common in the Intermountain Region

Willowlike rabbitbrush - common in the Intermountain Region

Turban rabbitbrush - occurs in the Great and Uinta basins of Utah and on the Colorado Plateau

Washoe rabbitbrush - Great Basin of northeastern California and northwestern Nevada

More info for the terms: adventitious, root crown, seed

Rubber rabbitbrush is a fire-adapted species that is typically unharmed or enhanced by fire [99,148]. Recovery time is often rapid to very rapid. Rubber rabbitbrush is often one of the first species to colonize burned areas by sprouting or from off-site seed [107,148]. Sprouts originate from adventitious buds located on the stem and root crown [24]. This species reproduces abundantly from heavily seed crops [148]. Seeds are easily dispersed to burned sites over long distances by wind.

Fire intervals in sagebrush-grass communities have been estimated at 7 to 70 years [148]. The range of fire intervals reported for some species that dominate communities where rubber rabbitbrush occurs are listed below. To learn more about the FIRE REGIMES in those communities refer to the Fire Effects Information System summary for that species, under "Fire Ecology or Adaptations."

ponderosa pine: 2-42 years
Mexican pinyon (Pinus cembroides): 20-70 years

More info for the terms: fuel, fuel continuity

Control of rubber rabbitbrush with fire is described as "erratic" [17]. Results may differ even on the same site and date if burned in different years. The outcome depends largely on whether the fire is hot enough to kill the crowns [17]. In general, fire must be at least "moderately hot" for effective control [74]. Rubber rabbitbrush may be more susceptible if burned after heavy grazing or during the early summer [148]

On many greasewood-rabbitbrush sites, vegetation is typically very sparse and burns can take place only under very hazardous fire conditions [17]. Many degraded sagebrush sites are also difficult to burn. A rest from grazing in summer can increase fuel continuity for better spread if burned in spring, summer, or fall [74].

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More info for the term: phanerophyte

Phanerophyte

More info for the term: shrub

Rubber rabbitbrush occurs in the cold deserts of the Colorado Plateau, throughout much of the Great Basin, and in warm deserts of the Southwest from lower-elevation Sonoran to subalpine zones [55,115]. Rubber rabbitbrush favors sunny, open sites throughout a wide variety of habitats including open plains, valleys, drainage ways, foothills, and mountains [26,60,123,142]. It is particularly common on disturbed sites [54]. Rubber rabbitbrush is cold hardy to temperatures of -40 degrees Fahrenheit (-40 oC) and tolerant of both moisture and salt stress [55,115]. The varieties of rubber rabbitbrush may overlap in their ranges, but they often have somewhat different ecological requirements. Habitat preferences of Chrysothamnus nauseosus by varieties are as follows [17,34,77,80,111,124]

pungent rabbitbrush - foothills and valleys
white rabbitbrush - dry plains, valleys, and mountain slopes
smooth-fruit rabbitbrush - diverse habitats
willowlike rabbitbrush - mountains, mountain brush

Rubber rabbitbrush grows on a wide range of soils [47,54]. Soils tend to be medium to coarse-textured and somewhat basic, but may range from moderately acidic to strongly alkaline [60]. This shrub commonly grows on dry, sandy, gravelly or heavy clay [123]. Rubber rabbitbrush is somewhat salt tolerant [54,55]. Although rubber rabbitbrush often occurs on poor soils, it can also be found on some productive soils [55]. Soil preference varies according to varieties as described below [4,32,62,78,111,112]:

white rabbitbrush - pH of 6.5-8.9; soils often coarse, deep, well-drained
Rainbow Hills rabbitbrush - barren seepage areas; gypsiferous soil
turban rabbitbrush - restricted to sandy soils

Rubber rabbitbrush grows across a wide elevational range. It grows from sea level to 10,500 feet (3,203 m) [138]. In the Great Basin, rubber rabbitbrush grows from 3,000 to 8,000 feet (900-2,400 m) [60]. In California, this species has been reported from 3,000 to 8,000 feet (914-2,438 m) in elevation [34]. Subspecific variation in elevational range is common. Elevation range by varieties is listed below [77]:

pungent rabbitbrush - 3,000 to 6,000 feet (925-1850 m)
willowlike rabbbitbrush - 6,000 to 9,000 feet (1,850-2745 m)

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This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

210 Interior Douglas-fir

220 Rocky Mountain juniper

237 Interior ponderosa pine

238 Western juniper

239 Pinyon-juniper

247 Jeffrey pine

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This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

More info for the term: shrub

FRES15 Oak-hickory

FRES17 Elm-ash-cottonwood

FRES20 Douglas-fir

FRES21 Ponderosa pine

FRES29 Sagebrush

FRES30 Desert shrub

FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub

FRES35 Pinyon-juniper

FRES36 Mountain grasslands

FRES38 Plains grasslands

FRES40 Desert grasslands

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This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the terms: forest, woodland

K011 Western ponderosa forest

K012 Douglas-fir forest

K016 Eastern ponderosa forest

K017 Black Hills pine forest

K018 Pine-Douglas-fir forest

K019 Arizona pine forest

K023 Juniper-pinyon woodland

K037 Mountain mahogany-oak scrub

K038 Great Basin sagebrush

K040 Saltbush-greasewood

K051 Wheatgrass-bluegrass

K055 Sagebrush steppe

K057 Galleta-three-awn shrubsteppe

K060 Wheatgrass-needlegrass shrubsteppe

K063 Foothills prairie

K064 Grama-needlegrass-wheatgrass

K065 Grama-buffalograss

K066 Wheatgrass-needlegrass

K067 Wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass

K081 Oak savanna

K098 Northern floodplain forest

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This species is known to occur in association with the following Rangeland Cover Types (as classified by the Society for Range Management, SRM):

107 Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass

314 Big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass

315 Big sagebrush-Idaho fescue

316 Big sagebrush-rough fescue

317 Bitterbrush-bluebunch wheatgrass

318 Bitterbrush-Idaho fescue

319 Bitterbrush-rough fescue

401 Basin big sagebrush

402 Mountain big sagebrush

403 Wyoming big sagebrush

406 Low sagebrush

408 Other sagebrush types

More info for the term: root crown

Rubber rabbitbrush is often top-killed by fire [74,91]. Because of relatively high resin content, both foliage and stems may be consumed, even at fairly high moisture content. Mortality after fire is variable but is often very low [99,103]. Fire effects may depend on varieties, season of burn, and condition and vigor of plant. After fires with high fireline intensities or a long residence time, buds located at or near the root crown may be killed, limiting ability to sprout [146]. Young [147] reported mortality of 20% after fire in Intermountain shrubsteppe. In the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge of Oregon, postfire mortality of less than 5% was observed [149].

More info for the terms: forbs, shrub, shrubs

Rubber rabbitbrush is considered an important browse species on depleted rangelands [77]. In general, wildlife and livestock forage only lightly on this species during the summer, but winter use can be heavy in some locations [80]. Fall use is variable, but flowers are often used by wildlife and livestock. A few leaves and the more tender stems may also be used. The forage value of rubber rabbitbrush varies greatly among varieties and ecotypes. White and willowlike rabbitbrush are preferred [78].

In Montana and Wyoming rubber rabbitbrush is considered to be an important fall and early winter food source for mule deer [33,73,100]. In north-central Montana, the percentage of rubber rabbitbrush in mule deer diets doubled from September to October, with highest use recorded in December [33]. Rubber rabbitbrush represents one of the single most important food items in winter mule deer diets in Wyoming, where it is used in summer and winter [100]. However, in parts of California it is considered only a minor mule deer food item even in winter [71]. Some elk use during September has been reported in the Missouri Breaks of Montana [73].

Pronghorn consume both flower tops and current-year leafage of rubber rabbitbrush [34]. In mixed shrub communities in Montana and Wyoming, they consume large amounts of rubber rabbitbrush during the fall. Pronghorn also use it in winter in some areas [2,9]. In parts of Saskatchewan, rubber rabbitbrush is a highly preferred pronghorn browse species during late fall [29].

In salt-desert communities of Utah, black-tailed jackrabbits graze the current year's growth of rubber rabbitbrush during dormancy [22]. In southern Idaho black-tailed jackrabbits exhibit a preference for forbs and shrubs, including rubber rabbitbrush, during August [37].

Rubber rabbitbrush is, in general, considered of little value to all classes of livestock although some varieties receive at least light use by livestock during the winter months [123]. It is described as a "poor" forage species for domestic sheep in winter [59]. However, in parts of Utah, domestic sheep may utilize as much as 17% of the current year's growth [42]. Generalized importance ratings are as follows [15]:

     black-tailed deer - low         Rocky Mountain elk - moderate
     mule deer - moderate            moose - low
     white-tailed deer -low          caribou - low
     mountain goat - low              bighorn sheep - moderate
     Roosevelt elk - low

More info for the terms: forest, grassland, habitat type, mesic, natural

Rubber rabbitbrush occurs as a dominant to minor component in many types of plant communities [96]. It grows in openings in sagebrush (Artemisia spp.), pinyon-juniper (Pinus-Juniperus spp.), and ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa) stands [142]. It also grows in mixed conifer forests of California with Jeffrey pine (P. jeffreyi), white fir (Abies concolor), and sugar pine (P. lambertiana) and in salt deserts with species such as greasewood (Sarcobatus spp.) and saltbush (Atriplex spp.). WIllowlie rabbitbrush grows on relatively mesic sites and occurs with mountain big sagebrush (A. tridentata) and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) [81,137].



Published classifications listing rubber rabbitbrush as an indicator or dominant species are presented below:



Natural production potential of some Rio Puerco soils in New Mexico [1]

Vegetation and soils of the Cow Creek Watershed [13]

Plant communities and habitat types in the Lava Beds National Monument, California [34]

Preliminary habitat types of a semiarid grassland [39]

A taxonomy for classification of seral vegetation of selected habitat types in western Montana [49]

Plant associations of the Crooked River National Grassland [58]

Forest vegetation of the Gunnison and parts of the Uncompahgre National Forests: a preliminary habitat type classification [68]

Classification of pinyon-juniper sites on National Forests in the Southwest [93]

More info for the term: shrub

Shrub

Rubber rabbitbrush has been rated "good" in energy and protein content [30]. Dry matter digestibility has been reported as 44.4% and crude protein content at 7.8% [25,140]. Nutritional value varies seasonally, with highest crude fat values noted in fall [120]. Crude protein levels also fluctuate seasonally. Protein value varied seasonally in 1964 as follows [131]:
     01/2 2/5 3/1 4/2 11/30
% crude protein      8.4% 8.0% 9.1% 8.2% 9%


Additional nutritional information is listed below [120]:

summer winter
crude fat 15-19% ----
carotene 7 µg/g ----
ash ---- 8.0%
P 0.09-0.11% 0.30%
K 0.80% 3.10%
Na 0.0169% 0.032%

AZ   CA   CO   ID   KS   MT    NE   NV   NM

ND   OK   OR   SD   TX   UT    WA   WY


AB   BC   SK


MEXICO

More info for the term: fruit

Palatability of rubber rabbitbrush varies greatly according to varieties. In general, the white or gray varieties such as willowlike and gray rabbitbrush are more palatable to wildlife and livestock than are the green varieties [99]. Generalized palatability ratings by varieties are as follows [77,111]:


pungent rabbitbrush
- low to medium

white rabbitbrush
- medium to high

willowlike rabbitbrush
- medium to high



All varieties are considered to be slightly toxic to livestock [30]. Rubber rabbitbrush fruit and flowers tend more palatable than other parts of the plant, and palatability of all varieties is generally highest in fall and winter. New leaders may be preferred by some browsers [73]. Meyers and others [87] report that white rabbitbrush is most palatable]. The following tables summarize reported palatability ratings of rubber rabbitbrush varieties by state.
Pungent rabbitbrush: CO MT ND UT WY
---------------------------------------------------------------
Cattle ---- ---- poor poor ----
Sheep ---- ---- fair poor ----
Horses ---- ---- fair poor ----
Pronghorn ---- fair good fair good
Elk ---- fair ---- fair good
Mule deer ---- good good fair good
White-tailed deer good ---- ---- ---- ----
Small mammals ---- ---- ---- good good
Small nongame birds ---- ---- ---- fair fair
Upland game birds ---- ---- ---- fair fair
Waterfowl ---- ---- ---- poor poor


Typical variety:

CO MT ND UT WY
---------------------------------------------------------------
Cattle poor poor poor poor fair
Sheep fair fair fair good fair
Horses fair poor fair poor fair
Pronghorn ---- fair good good good
Elk ---- poor ---- good good
Mule deer ---- good fair good good
White-tailed deer good fair ---- ---- ----
Small mammals ---- ---- ---- good good
Small nongame birds ---- ---- ---- fair fair
Upland game birds ---- ---- ---- fair fair
Waterfowl ---- ---- ---- poor poor

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More info for the terms: competition, fruit, seed

Bud burst usually occurs in late March or early April but may occur as early as late February. Restricted growth continues until May. Accelerated growth occurs from May until early or mid-August. Photosynthesis continues through the summer drought period [19]. Vegetative growth begins earlier and is more vigorous where competition is less [113].

Flower bud initiation takes place in early- to mid-summer, with flowering from mid-summer to fall [96,115]. Populations at higher elevations flower in July whereas those from low elevation Mojave Desert populations do not begin flowering until mid-October. Populations from cold deserts and northern pinyon-juniper woodlands are intermediate [88].

Seed ripens from late fall to early winter [96]. Seed set occurs in late September at higher elevations and in late November at low elevation Mojave Desert sites [88]. Seed dissemination starts before all flowers are fully mature. The rate of dissemination is affected by weather conditions, including wind and moisture. Fruit typically matures earlier on plants experiencing little competition. Germination occurs from March through June [133].

Generalized phenological events were reported as follows in a study conducted near Millican, Oregon [82]: Phenological Event Date Leaf development Mid-April to Mid-May Flower bud initiation Mid-June to Mid-July Bracts yellow Early Aug. to Early Sept. Flowers mature Early Sept. to Early Oct. Seed disseminated Early Sept. to Mid-Nov. Phenological development of rubber rabbitbrush near Elko, Nevada was as follows [108]: Date Event 7/18/53 Buds initiated 8/28/53 Mid-bloom 4/28/54 Dormant 6/3/54 2-4" Growth 6/30/54 3-6" Growth

More info for the terms: root crown, seed

Recovery of rubber rabbitbrush after fire is described as "rapid" or "very rapid" [91,123,128,148]. Recovery may occur by means of vigorous sprouting or through an abundance of wind-dispersed seed [148]. Sprouting may be aided by the release of nutrients after fire [121]. Most postfire sprouting is epicormic (stem) and not root or root crown sprouting [99]. Sprouting response depends on burning conditions, weather, season of burn, varieties, and ecotypic variation [74,99,116]. White-gray varieties such as white rabbitbrush are relatively susceptible to fire, whereas the green-gray varieties (pungent rabbitbrush ) more often survive [144]. Postfire drought conditions may cause mortality in plants that would otherwise sprout [105]. In many areas, reproduction from seed is also important in increasing rubber rabbitbrush population densities [65,99]. Surviving plants can, in some cases, sprout culms that quickly flower almost immediately after fire. In other instances, plants sprout the following growing season and produce an abundance of flowers and seeds [147]. These seeds germinate and establish the second year after burning. Postfire seed crops are often particularly heavy [149].

More info for the terms: adventitious, fire regime, initial off-site colonizer, secondary colonizer, seed, shrub

Tall shrub, adventitious bud/root crown
Small shrub, adventitious bud/root crown
Initial off-site colonizer (off-site, initial community)
Secondary colonizer, on-site seed

FIRE REGIMES:
Find fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".

More info for the terms: fruit, litter, root crown, seed, shrubs, stratification

Rubber rabbitbrush establishes from seed and by sprouting. Sprouts originate at or near the soil surface from epicormic buds located on the stem and root crown [91,147,149]. For more information on sprouting, see "PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE" below.

Seed ripens in autumn [31,85,90]. The wind-dispersed seed may be carried up to 165 yards (151 m). Rubber rabbitbrush usually produces an abundance of seed, although fruit fill varies by plant and year [88]. Good seed crops generally occur every year or every 2 years [133]. Mild weather in late fall and early winter can enhance the percentage of seed which is viable [96]. Seeds do not persist in a seedbank [85].

Seeds germinate in winter or spring after snow melt. Seed dormancy in rubber rabbitbrush is described as conditional and temperature-dependent [88]. Germination occurs over a broad range of temperatures but over a narrow range of moisture conditions [109]. A stratification period is not necessary for rubber rabbitbrush but may speed germination. Stratification period may extend to 120 days [70]. Without stratification, germination begins within 5 to 20 days after planting [27]. In laboratory tests, germination rates are highest at 58 to 86 degrees Fahrenheit (20-30 oC) and lowest at 50 degrees Fahrenheit (10 oC) [109]. A specific light regime is not required, but germination can be inhibited by high saline concentrations [67,138].

Germination rates vary dramatically by seed source [85]. For example, the length of time required for 50% germination ranged from 5 to 96 days for seed obtained from California, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and Montana [79]. varieties from the same location generally show similar germination response to temperature [88]. varieties with wide ecological amplitude often show a wide range of germination response [88]. Specific germination characteristics by varieties are as follows [67,114]:

Bigelow's rabbitbrush - excellent germination at or below 91 degrees Fahrenheit (32.5 oC)

Seeds from southern or warm desert populations germinate more rapidly than do those from northern or montane and high-elevation populations [79,138]. Meyer and McArthur [88] report that under laboratory conditions of 37 degrees Fahrenheit (3 oC), seed collections from warm desert habitats required less than 2 weeks to achieve 90% germination, whereas collections from montane habitats took up to 20 weeks. Similarly 50% germination at 37 degrees Fahrenheit (3 oC) took up to 100 days for seed from areas with severe winters. Mojave Desert seeds reached 50% germination in less than 1 week [85]. Collections from middle elevations exhibit asynchronous germination in the cold. Germination rates at near-freezing temperatures correlate with mean January temperatures at the collection site [90]. Seed collections from high elevation populations may show dormancy at autumn temperatures and may germinate slowly under the snow or at near-freezing temperatures. Collections from warm deserts germinate rapidly over a range of temperatures including near-freezing temperatures [88,90].

Rubber rabbitbrush seed retains good viability for 0 to 3 years [96,117]. In laboratory tests, germination declined from 80% to 14% from the second to fifth year of storage [67]. After 4 years of storage, viability dropped significantly as follows [125]: year % germination 2 80 3 65 4 34 5 14 7 11 10 7 Roots of new seedlings grow rapidly [82]. Early-season mortality is primarily caused by freezing, damping off, and improper rooting [31]. After early May, mortality is mostly due to water stress. Seedling emergence and establishment are severely limited in dry years [109]. Established seedlings do not persist unless late spring rains replenish soil moisture and roots elongate before surface moisture is depleted. In eastern Oregon, seedlings established in grass and litter on the northeast side of older shrubs. They also established on north sides of small mounds or indentations made by animals. Seedling mortality on these sites was greater than 50% by June.

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This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

 3 Southern Pacific Border

 5 Columbia Plateau

 6 Upper Basin and Range

 7 Lower Basin and Range

 8 Northern Rocky Mountains

 9 Middle Rocky Mountains

10 Wyoming Basin

11 Southern Rocky Mountains

12 Colorado Plateau

13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont

15 Black Hills Uplift

16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands

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More info for the terms: climax, cover, herbaceous, shrub, succession

Rubber rabbitbrush is generally regarded as an early seral species that rapidly invades and colonizes disturbed sites [55,134]. It is commonly found in seral communities such as along roadsides and on degraded rangelands [88,142]. Although it colonizes sites with little topsoil, it also invades fairly productive low-elevation riparian areas and deeper soils adjacent to drainage bottoms [23,86,122]. Rubber rabbitbrush often increases after the removal of big sagebrush [112]. On some sites, seedlings may be unable to become established until herbaceous pioneers increase soil stability [16].

Rubber rabbitbrush generally declines later in succession [135]. In the high desert of Oregon, it attains dominance only on highly disturbed early seral stands, but remains dominant for long periods on burned or abandoned agricultural lands [131]. Rubber rabbitbrush is considered a mid-seral species in some semi-arid sagebrush communities [84]. It was found to dominate the shrub layer on 35 to 65 year old pinyon-juniper sites in north-central Arizona [127]. During this time, rubber rabbitbrush cover declined from 22.03% to 10.1%. In shrub communities in Idaho, rubber rabbitbrush can remain dominant for 10 to 25 years after fire [149]. A "typical" successional pathway on sand dunes of Idaho is listed below [16]:
stage 1 0 to 30 years pioneer species such as Elymus spp. stage 2 10-70 years rubber rabbitbrush assumes dominance stage 3 50-70 years antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) stages 4-5 > 70 years big sagebrush, followed by antelope bitterbrush Meyer and McArthur [88] report that some of the geographically isolated varieties form part of climax vegetation on dunes and shale barrens. Rubber rabbitbrush may continue as a minor component in stands near or at climax condition.

Chrysothamnus nauseosus (Pall.) Britt. [5,21,47,56,64,66,139,141]

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. albicaulis (Nutt.) Rydb. [5,56,64]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. arenarius (L.C. Anderson) Welsh [5,21,64,141]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. bernardinus (Hall) Hall & Clem. [5,56,64]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. bigelovii (Gray) Hall [5,21,64,139]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. ceruminosus (Durand & Hilg.) H. M. Hall & Clem. [5,56,64]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. consimilis (Greene) Hall [5,56,64,139]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. glabratus (Gray) Cronq. [141]   

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. glareosus (Jones) Welsh [21,141]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. gnaphaloides (Greene) Hall [66,141]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. graveolens (Nutt.) Piper [5,47,64,139]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. hololeucus (Gray) Hall & Clem. [5,21,56,64,139]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. iridis (L. C. Anderson) Welsh [5,64,141]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. junceus (Greene) Hall [5,21,64,66]  r

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. latisquameus (Gray) H. M. Hall [5,64]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. leiospermus (A. Gray) H. M. Hall & Clem. [5,21,56,64]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. mohavensis (Greene) Hall & Clem. [5,21,56,64]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. nanus (Cronq) Keck [64]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. nauseosus [5,47,64,139]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. oreophilus (Gray) Cronq. [21] 

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. psilocarpus Blake [5,64,141] 

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. salicifolius (Rydb.) Hall [5,21,64,141]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. speciosus (Nutt.) Hitchcock & Cronquist [21]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. texensis L. C. Anderson [5,64]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. turbinatus (Jones) Blake [5,21,64,66,141]

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. uintahensis (L. C. Anderson) [5,21,64]  

Chrysothamnus nauseosus subsp. washoensis (L. C. Anderson) Cronquist [5,21,56,64]
Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. consimilis (Greene) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. consimilis (Greene) G.L. Nesom & Baird var. arenaria (L.C. Anderson) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. consimilis (Greene) G.L. Nesom & Baird var. ceruminosa (Durand & Hilg.) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. consimilis (Greene) G.L. Nesom & Baird var. juncea (Greene) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. consimilis (Greene) G.L. Nesom & Baird var. leiosperma (A. Gray) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. consimilis (Greene) G.L. Nesom & Baird var. mohavensis (Greene) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. consimilis (Greene) G.L. Nesom & Baird var. nitida (L.C. Anderson) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. consimilis (Greene) G.L. Nesom & Baird var. oreophila (A. Nelson) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. consimilis (Greene) G.L. Nesom & Baird var. turbinata (M.E. Jones) G.L.
Nesom & Baird

Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. nauseosa

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. nauseosa var. bernardina (H.M. Hall) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. nauseosa var. bigelovii (A. Gray) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. nauseosa var. glabrata (A. Gray) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. nauseosa var. glareosa (M.E. Jones) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. nauseosa var. hololeuca (A. Gray) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. nauseosa var. iridis (L.C. Anderson) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. nauseosa var. latisquamea (A. Gray) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. nauseosa var. nana (Cronquist) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. nauseosa var. nauseosa

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. nauseosa var. psilocarpa (S.F. Blake) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. nauseosa var. salicifolia (Rydb.) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. nauseosa var. speciosa (Nutt.) G.L. Nesom & Baird


     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. nauseosa var. texensis (L.C. Anderson) G.L. Nesom & Baird

     Ericameria nauseosa (Pall. ex Pursh) G.L. Nesom & Baird subsp. nauseosa var. washoensis (L.C. Anderson) G.L. Nesom & Baird [129]

The scientific name of rubber rabbitbrush is Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird (Asteraceae) [63,151]. This species is described as the most complex and widespread species within the genus [7]. Some morphological characteristics are difficult to observe and overlapping characteristics are sometimes noted [54]. The following varieties are recognized [151].




Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. arenaria (L. C. Anderson) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, sand rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. bernardina (H. M. Hall) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, Bernardina rabbitbursh

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. bigelovii (A. Gray) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, Bigelow’s rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. ceruminosa (Durand & Hilgard) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, desert rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. graveolens (Nuttall) Reveal & Schuyler, pungent rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. hololeuca (A. Gray) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, white rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. iridis (L. C. Anderson) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, Rainbow Hills rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. juncea (Greene) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, rush rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. latisquamea (A. Gray) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, broadscale rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. leiosperma (A. Gray) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, smooth-fruit rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. mohavensis (Greene) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, Mohave rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. nana (Cronquist) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, dwarf rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. nauseosa, rubber rabbitbrush (typical varitey)

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. nitida (L. C. Anderson) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, shiny-bract rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa(Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. oreophila (A. Nelson) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, Great Basin rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. psilocarpa (S. F. Blake) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, smooth-fruit rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. salicifolia (Rydberg) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, willowlike rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. speciosa (Nuttall) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, gray rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. texensis (L. C. Anderson) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, Texas rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. turbinata (M. E. Jones) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, turban rabbitbrush

Ericameria nauseosa (Pallas ex Pursh) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird var. washoensis (L. C. Anderson) G. L. Nesom & G. I. Baird, Washoe rabbitbrush



Numerous races and ecotypes of rubber rabbitbrush have also been identified [95]. Certain varieties occur across a wide ecological amplitude whereas others, such as Ericameria nauseosa var. salicifolius, are narrowly restricted in either habitat or range [7,89]. Intermediate morphological forms occur at the edges of the varieties' geographic ranges [78]. However, Anderson [7] reports that all infrataxa "are relatively well-defined and often coexist with little or no genetic exchange."

More info for the terms: litter, seed, shrub

Rubber rabbitbrush is excellent for soil stabilization and erosion control [26,60]. It is also well suited for use on degraded winter ranges [14,111]. Rubber rabbitbrush has a deep root system and can establish rapidly, even on severe sites [96]. Plants produce large quantities of leaf litter which produces soil mulch. On poor sites litter is important as a means of recycling nutrients to the soil surface from the deeper rooting profile. Rubber rabbitbrush has been planted in sagebrush grass, pinyon-juniper, northern desert shrub, southern desert shrub, and salt desert shrub communities [38,75,95].

Rubber rabbitbrush can be successfully seeded directly onto mined lands, including surface coal mine spoils [28,94]. It has also been successfully planted on disturbed areas such as along roadsides, where it frequently forms almost pure stands [138]].

When selecting accessions for rehabilitation, the relative palatability of the varieties should be considered. On highly erosive soils, less palatable varieties can be planted to discourage herbivory [95].

Seeds can be sown in spring or fall [117]. Initial establishment from seed is described as "good to fair" and early growth is generally rapid [77,123]. Seedlings are easy to establish, even on unprepared seedbeds [96]. Drill seeding, direct seeding, and aerial application have all been used effectively [28,77]. Transplanting container stock or nursery seedlings can also be effective [67,77]. Rubber rabbitbrush can be propagated by using stem cuttings [76,128,137]. Once established, it spreads easily by abundant, wind-disseminated achenes.

Volunteer chamisa in the landscaping of the post office in Crestone, Colorado Flower heads, each with five individual flowers. Most of the flower heads in the cluster of heads were removed for this image.

Ericameria nauseosa (formerly Chrysothamnus nauseosus), commonly known as chamisa, rubber rabbitbrush, and gray rabbitbrush, is a shrub in the sunflower family (Aster) found in the arid regions of western North America.

Two subspecies have been described, consimilis (the green form with 8 varieties) and nauseosa (the gray form with 14 varieties).