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Crex ( Afrikaans )

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Crex is 'n genus voëls in die familie Rallidae. Die genus omvat twee spesies.[2]

Spesies

Sien ook

Verwysings

  1. Bechstein, Johann Matthäus (1803). Ornithologisches Taschenbuch von und für Deutschland oder kurze Beschreibung aller Vogel Deutschlands, vol 2 (in Duits). Leipzig: Richter. p. 336.
  2. Gill, F., Wright, M. & Donsker, D. (2010). IOC World Bird Names (weergawe 2.6). (en)
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Crex: Brief Summary ( Afrikaans )

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Crex is 'n genus voëls in die familie Rallidae. Die genus omvat twee spesies.

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Çivdimdik ( Azerbaijani )

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Çivdimdik (lat. Crex Bechst., 1803) cinsi Quşlar (Aves) sinfinin Sufərələri (Rallidae) fəsiləsinə, Durnakimilər (Gruiformes) dəstəsinə aiddir[1].

Təsnifatı

Azərbaycanda Çivdimdik cinsinə 3 növ daxildir:

  1. Adi çivdimdik (Crex crex Linn., 1758)

Həmçinin bax

Uzunquyruq sahilqartalı
Adi çivdimdik
Səhra balakəkliyi
Adi sufərəsi
Gözəl əntiqdurna

Xarici keçidlər

The corncrake (Crex Crex)

Ədəbiyyat

1. Azərbaycanın heyvanlar aləmi. III cild, Onurğalılar. Bakı: "Elm", 2004.-620 səh.

İstinadlar

  1. Azərbaycanın heyvanlar aləmi. III cild, Onurğalılar. Bakı: "Elm", 2004.-620 səh.
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Çivdimdik: Brief Summary ( Azerbaijani )

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Çivdimdik (lat. Crex Bechst., 1803) cinsi Quşlar (Aves) sinfinin Sufərələri (Rallidae) fəsiləsinə, Durnakimilər (Gruiformes) dəstəsinə aiddir.

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Crex ( Breton )

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Crex a zo ur genad e rummatadur an evned, krouet e 1803 gant al loenoniour alaman Johann Matthäus Bechstein (1757-1822).

Spesadoù[1]

N'eus nemet ur spesad rakiged er genad-mañ : Crex crex, anv skiantel ar rakig-melchon.

Notennoù ha daveennoù

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Crex: Brief Summary ( Breton )

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Crex a zo ur genad e rummatadur an evned, krouet e 1803 gant al loenoniour alaman Johann Matthäus Bechstein (1757-1822).

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Crex ( Catalan; Valencian )

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Crex és un gènere d'ocells de la família dels ràl·lids (Rallidae) que habiten al Vell Món.

Llistat d'espècies

Segons la classificació del Congrés Ornitològic Internacional (versió 2.5, 2010) aquest gènere està format per dues espècies:

Molts autors inclouen Crex egregia al gènere Crecopsis, deixant així el gènere Crex amb una única espècie.

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Crex: Brief Summary ( Catalan; Valencian )

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Crex és un gènere d'ocells de la família dels ràl·lids (Rallidae) que habiten al Vell Món.

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Teaperts ( Western Frisian )

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De teaperts (wittenskiplike namme: Crex) foarmje in ûnderfamylje fan 'e klasse fan 'e fûgels (Aves), it skift fan 'e kraaneftigen (Gruiformes), it ûnderskift fan 'e raleftigen (Ralli), de famylje fan 'e ralfûgels (Rallidae) en de ûnderfamylje fan de echte ralfûgels (Rallinae). Ta dit skaai hearre twa libbene soarten, te witten: de teapert (Crex crex), dy't foarhinne ek yn Fryslân rûnom foarkaam, en de Afrikaanske teapert (Crex egregia). Soms wurdt de Afrikaanske teapert yn in eigen skaai pleatst, Crecopsis, mar de yndieling by Crex is tsjintwurdich frij algemien oanfurde.

Skaaimerken

Beide soarten teaperts hawwe in koarte snaffel, in swart-brún boppeliif en in foar it meastepart blau-griis ûnderliif. De teapert is in stik grutter as syn Afrikaanske sibbe. Oars as de measte ralfûgels binne teaperts bewenners fan drûch gerslân ynstee fan wetterrike gebieten. Beide soarten hawwe in karakteristike, lûde, kreakjende rop, dy't se ynsette om yn 'e briedtiid konkurrinten har territoarium út te bonsjoeren. Se binne foar it meastepart oerdeis aktyf, en as se fersteurd wurde, naaie se ornaris te foet út troch it lange gers of fleane se in lyts eintsje nei begroeiïng dy't har beskûl biedt.

De bried- en oerwinteringsgebieten lizze by beide soarten fier útinoar. De migraasje tusken dy kriten fynt nachts plak en it fermogen dêrta is oanberne en wurdt troch de piken net leard fan folwoeksen eksimplaren. De teapert briedt yn Jeropa en Sintraal-Aazje en oerwinteret yn East-Afrika en Súdlik Afrika, wylst de Afrikaanske teapert hinne en wer migrearret binnen Afrika. Hoewol't teaperts ûnbidich grutte ferspriedingsgebieten hawwe, binne se op guon plakken yn 'e tweintichste iuw yn 'e benearing kommen troch de meganisaasje en yntinsifearring fan 'e lânbou.

Famylje-opbou

Boarnen, noaten en referinsjes

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Teaperts: Brief Summary ( Western Frisian )

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De teaperts (wittenskiplike namme: Crex) foarmje in ûnderfamylje fan 'e klasse fan 'e fûgels (Aves), it skift fan 'e kraaneftigen (Gruiformes), it ûnderskift fan 'e raleftigen (Ralli), de famylje fan 'e ralfûgels (Rallidae) en de ûnderfamylje fan de echte ralfûgels (Rallinae). Ta dit skaai hearre twa libbene soarten, te witten: de teapert (Crex crex), dy't foarhinne ek yn Fryslân rûnom foarkaam, en de Afrikaanske teapert (Crex egregia). Soms wurdt de Afrikaanske teapert yn in eigen skaai pleatst, Crecopsis, mar de yndieling by Crex is tsjintwurdich frij algemien oanfurde.

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Тартарлар ( Kirghiz; Kyrgyz )

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 src=
Crex egregia.

Тартарлар (лат. Crex) — шалбада, беделүү, эгиндүү жерлерде жашоочу куштардын бир уруусу, булардын өкүлү, мисалы, кадимки тартар (лат. C. crex).

Колдонулган адабияттар

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Тартарлар: Brief Summary ( Kirghiz; Kyrgyz )

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 src= Crex egregia.

Тартарлар (лат. Crex) — шалбада, беделүү, эгиндүү жерлерде жашоочу куштардын бир уруусу, булардын өкүлү, мисалы, кадимки тартар (лат. C. crex).

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Crex

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The corn crake, corncrake or landrail (Crex crex) is a bird in the rail family. It breeds in Europe and Asia as far east as western China, and migrates to Africa for the Northern Hemisphere's winter. It is a medium-sized crake with buff- or grey-streaked brownish-black upperparts, chestnut markings on the wings, and blue-grey underparts with rust-coloured and white bars on the flanks and undertail. The strong bill is flesh-toned, the iris is pale brown, and the legs and feet are pale grey. Juveniles are similar in plumage to adults, and downy chicks are black, as with all rails. There are no subspecies, although individuals from the east of the breeding range tend to be slightly paler than their western counterparts. The male's call is a loud krek krek, from which the scientific name is derived. The corn crake is larger than its closest relative, the African crake, which shares its wintering range; that species is also darker-plumaged, and has a plainer face.

The corn crake's breeding habitat is grassland, particularly hayfields, and it uses similar environments on the wintering grounds. This secretive species builds a nest of grass leaves in a hollow in the ground and lays 6–14 cream-coloured eggs which are covered with rufous blotches. These hatch in 19–20 days, and the black precocial chicks fledge after about five weeks. This crake is in steep decline across much of its former breeding range because modern farming practices often destroy nests before breeding is completed. The corn crake is omnivorous but mainly feeds on invertebrates, the occasional small frog or mammal, and plant material including grass seed and cereal grain. Threats include dogs, cats, other introduced and feral mammals, large birds, various parasites and diseases.

Although numbers have declined steeply in western Europe, this bird is classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List because of its huge range and large, apparently stable, populations in Russia and Kazakhstan.[1] Numbers in western China are more significant than previously thought, and conservation measures have facilitated an increased population in some countries which had suffered the greatest losses. Despite its elusive nature, the loud call has ensured the corn crake has been noted in literature, and garnered a range of local and dialect names.

Taxonomy

The rails are a bird family comprising nearly 150 species. Although the origins of the group are lost in antiquity, the largest number of species and least specialised forms are found in the Old World, suggesting this family originated there. The taxonomy of the small crakes is complicated, but the closest relative of the corn crake is the African crake, which has been given its own genus, Crecopsis.[3][4]

Corn crakes were first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae as Rallus crex,[5] but was subsequently moved to the genus Crex, created by German naturalist and ornithologist Johann Matthäus Bechstein in 1803, and named Crex pratensis.[6] The earlier use of crex gives it priority over Bechstein's specific name pratensis, and leads to the current name of Crex crex.[7] The binomial name, Crex crex, from the ancient Greek "κρεξ", is onomatopoeic, referring to the crake's repetitive grating call.[8][9] The common name was formerly spelt as a single word, "corncrake", but the official version is now "corn crake". The English names refer to the species' habit of nesting in dry hay or cereal fields, rather than marshes used by most members of this family.[10]

Description

The corn crake is a medium-sized rail, 27–30 cm (11–12 in) long with a wingspan of 42–53 cm (17–21 in). Males weigh 165 g (5.8 oz) on average and females 145 g (5.1 oz). The adult male has the crown of its head and all of its upperparts brown-black in colour, streaked with buff or grey. The wing coverts are a distinctive chestnut colour with some white bars. The face, neck and breast are blue-grey, apart from a pale brown streak from the base of the bill to behind the eye, the belly is white, and the flanks, and undertail are barred with chestnut and white. The strong bill is flesh-coloured, the iris is pale brown, and the legs and feet are pale grey. Compared to the male, the female has warmer-toned upperparts and a narrower duller eye streak. Outside the breeding season, the upperparts of both sexes become darker and the underparts less grey. The juvenile is like the adult in appearance, but has a yellow tone to its upperparts, and the grey of the underparts is replaced with buff-brown. The chicks have black down, as with all rails. While there are no subspecies, all populations show great individual variation in colouring, and the birds gradually become paler and greyer towards the east of the range. Adults undergo a complete moult after breeding, which is normally finished by late August or early September, before migration to south eastern Africa. There is a pre-breeding partial moult prior to the return from Africa, mainly involving the plumage of the head, body and tail. Young birds have a head and body moult about five weeks after hatching.[11]

The corn crake is sympatric with the African crake on the wintering grounds, but can be distinguished by its larger size, paler upperparts, tawny upperwing and different underparts pattern. In flight, it has longer, less rounded wings, and shallower wingbeats than its African relative, and shows a white leading edge to the inner wing. In both the breeding and wintering ranges it is unlikely to be confused with any other rails, since sympatric species are smaller, with white markings on the upperparts, different underparts patterns and shorter bills. A flying corn crake can resemble a gamebird, but its chestnut wing pattern and dangling legs are diagnostic.[11]

Voice

Male's advertising call

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On the breeding grounds, the male corn crake's advertising call is a loud, repetitive, grating krek krek normally delivered from a low perch with the bird's head and neck almost vertical and its bill wide open. The call can be heard from 1.5 km (0.93 mi) away, and serves to establish the breeding territory, attract females, and challenge intruding males. Slight differences in vocalisations mean that individual males can be distinguished by their calls. Early in the season, the call is given almost continuously at night, and often during the day, too.[11] It may be repeated more than 20,000 times a night, with a peak between midnight and 3 am.[12] The call has evolved to make a singing male's location clear, as this species hides in vegetation.[13] The frequency of calling reduces after a few weeks but may intensify again near the end of the laying period before falling away towards the end of the breeding season. To attract males, mechanical imitations of their call can be produced by rubbing two pieces of wood or ribs, one of them with notches,[14] or by flicking a credit card against a comb or zip-fastener.[12][15] The male also has a growling call, given with the bill shut and used during aggressive interactions.[11]

The female corn crake may give a call that is similar to that of the male; it also has a distinctive barking sound, similar in rhythm to the main call but without the grating quality.[16] The female also has a high-pitched cheep call, and a oo-oo-oo sound to call the chick. The chicks make a quiet peeick-peeick contact call, and a chirp used to beg for food.[11] Because of the difficulty in seeing this species, it is usually censused by counting males calling between 11 pm and 3 am;[17] the birds do not move much at night, whereas they may wander up to 600 m (660 yd) during the day, which could lead to double-counting if monitored then.[18] Identifying individual males suggests that just counting calling birds underestimates the true count by nearly 30%, and the discrepancy is likely to be greater, since only 80% of males may call at all on a given night.[19] The corn crake is silent in Africa.[20]

Distribution and habitat

Field of hay with green field beyond
Hayfields are the preferred nesting habitat.

The corn crake breeds from Ireland east through Europe to central Siberia. Although it has vanished from much of its historic range, this bird was once found in suitable habitats in Eurasia everywhere between latitudes 41°N and 62°N.[21] There is also a sizable population in western China,[22] but this species nests only rarely in northern Spain and in Turkey. Old claims of breeding in South Africa are incorrect, and result from misidentification of eggs in a museum collection which are actually those of the African rail.

The corn crake winters mainly in Africa, from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and central Tanzania south to eastern South Africa. North of this area, it is mainly seen on migration, but occasionally winters in North Africa and to the west and north of its core area in southeast Africa. Most of the South African population of about 2,000 birds occurs in KwaZulu-Natal and the former Transvaal Province, and numbers elsewhere in Africa are uncertain. There are several nineteenth-century records, when populations were much higher than now, of birds being seen in western Europe, mainly Britain and Ireland, between December and February.[23]

Old painting of two adults with a black, downy chick
Adults and young

This crake migrates to Africa along two main routes: a western route through Morocco and Algeria, and a more important flyway through Egypt. On passage, it has been recorded in most countries between its breeding and wintering ranges, including much of West Africa.[11] Birds from Coll following the western route paused in West Africa on their way further south, and again on the return flight, when they also rested in Spain or North Africa.[24] Eastern migrants have been recorded in those parts of southern Asia that lie between the east of the breeding range and Africa. Further afield, the corn crake has been recorded as a vagrant to Sri Lanka, Vietnam and Australia,[22] New Zealand,[25] the Seychelles,[26] Bermuda,[27] Canada, the US, Greenland,[11] Iceland, the Faroes, the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands.[23]

The corn crake is mainly a lowland species, but breeds up to 1,400 m (4,600 ft) altitude in the Alps, 2,700 m (8,900 ft) in China and 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in Russia.[22][23] When breeding in Eurasia, the corn crake's habitats would originally have included river meadows with tall grass and meadow plants including sedges and irises. It is now mainly found in cool moist grassland used for the production of hay, particularly moist traditional farmland with limited cutting or fertiliser use. It also utilises other treeless grasslands in mountains or taiga, on coasts, or where created by fire. Moister areas like wetland edges may be used, but very wet habitats are avoided, as are open areas and those with vegetation more than 50 cm (20 in) tall, or too dense to walk through. The odd bush or hedge may be used as a calling post. Grassland which is not mown or grazed becomes too matted to be suitable for nesting, but locally-grown crops such as cereals, peas, rape, clover or potatoes may be used. After breeding, adults move to taller vegetation such as common reed, iris, or nettles to moult, returning to the hay and silage meadows for the second brood.[11] In China, flax is also used for nest sites.[22] Although males often sing in intensively managed grass or cereal crops, successful breeding is uncommon, and nests in the field margins or nearby fallow ground are more likely to succeed.[21]

When wintering in Africa, the corn crake occupies dry grassland and savanna habitats, occurring in vegetation 30–200 cm (0.98–6.56 ft) tall, including seasonally burnt areas and occasionally sedges or reed beds. It is also found on fallow and abandoned fields, uncut grass on airfields, and the edges of crops. It occurs at up to at least 1,750 m (5,740 ft) altitude in South Africa.[11] Each bird stays within a fairly small area.[24] Although it sometimes occurs with the African crake, that species normally prefers moister and shorter grassland habitats than does the corn crake.[28] On migration, the corn crake may also occur in wheatfields and around golf courses.[11]

Behaviour

upstretched head and neck
Adult corn crake camouflaged in a field (Russia, 2006)

The corn crake is a difficult bird to see in its breeding sites, usually being hidden by vegetation, but will sometimes emerge into the open. Occasionally, individuals may become very trusting; for five consecutive summers, an individual crake on the Scottish island of Tiree entered a kitchen to feed on scraps, and, in 1999, a wintering Barra bird would come for poultry feed once the chickens had finished.[12] In Africa, it is more secretive than the African crake, and, unlike its relative, it is rarely seen in the open, although it occasionally feeds on tracks or road sides. The corn crake is most active early and late in the day, after heavy rain and during light rain. Its typical flight is weak and fluttering, although less so than that of the African crake. For longer flights, such as migration, it has a steadier, stronger action with legs drawn up. It walks with a high-stepping action, and can run swiftly through grass with its body held horizontal and laterally flattened. It will swim if essential. When flushed by a dog, it will fly less than 50 m (160 ft), frequently landing behind a bush or thicket, and then crouch on landing. If disturbed in the open, this crake will often run in a crouch for a short distance, with its neck stretched forward, then stand upright to watch the intruder. When captured it may feign death, recovering at once if it sees a way out.[11]

The corn crake is solitary on the wintering grounds, where each bird occupies 4.2–4.9 ha (10–12 acres) at one time, although the total area used may be double that, since an individual may move locally due to flooding, plant growth, or grass cutting. Flocks of up to 40 birds may form on migration, sometimes associating with common quails. Migration takes place at night, and flocks resting during the day may aggregate to hundreds of birds at favoured sites.[11] The ability to migrate is innate, not learned from adults. Chicks raised from birds kept in captivity for ten generations were able to migrate to Africa and return with similar success to wild-bred young.[29]

Breeding

cream-coloured egg with red-brown blotches
Painting of an egg
Collection of eggs in Museum Wiesbaden

Until 1995, it was assumed that the corn crake is monogamous, but it transpires that a male may have a shifting home range, and mate with two or more females, moving on when laying is almost complete. The male's territory can vary from 3 to 51 ha (7.4 to 126.0 acres), but averages 15.7 ha (39 acres). The female has a much smaller range, averaging only 5.5 ha (14 acres). A male will challenge an intruder by calling with his wings drooped and his head pointing forward. Usually the stranger moves off; if it stays, the two birds square up with heads and necks raised and the wings touching the ground. They then run around giving the growling call and lunging at each other. A real fight may ensue, with the birds leaping at each other and pecking, and sometimes kicking. Females play no part in defending the territory.

The female may be offered food by the male during courtship. He has a brief courtship display in which the neck is extended and the head held down, the tail is fanned, and the wings are spread with the tips touching the ground. He will then attempt to approach the female from behind, and then leap on her back to copulate. The nest is typically in grassland, sometimes in safer sites along a hedge, or near an isolated tree or bush, or in overgrown vegetation. Where grass is not tall enough at the start of the season, the first nest may be constructed in herby or marsh vegetation, with the second brood in hay.[11] The second nest may also be at a higher altitude that the first, to take advantage of the later-developing grasses further up a hill.[30] The nest, well hidden in the grass, is built in a scrape or hollow in the ground. It is made of woven coarse dry grass and other plants, and lined with finer grasses.[31] Although nest construction is usually described as undertaken by the female,[23] a recent aviary study found that in the captive population the male always built the nest.[32]

The nest is 12–15 cm (4.7–5.9 in) in diameter and 3–4 cm (1.2–1.6 in) deep. The clutch is 6–14, usually 8–12 eggs; these are oval, slightly glossy, creamy or tinted with green, blue or grey, and blotched red-brown. They average 37 mm × 26 mm (1.5 in × 1.0 in) and weigh about 13–16 g (0.46–0.56 oz),[11] of which 7% is shell.[33] The eggs are laid at daily intervals, but second clutches may sometimes have two eggs added per day. Incubation is by the female only; her tendency to sit tight when disturbed, or wait until the last moment to flee, leads to many deaths during hay-cutting and harvesting. The eggs hatch together after 19–20 days, and the precocial chicks leave the nest within a day or two. They are fed by the female for three or four days, but can find their own food thereafter. The juveniles fledge after 34–38 days. The second brood is started about 42 days after the first, and the incubation period is slightly shorter at 16–18 days. The grown young may stay with the female until departure for Africa.

Nest success in undisturbed sites is high, at 80–90%, but much lower in fertilised meadows and on arable land. The method and timing of mowing is crucial; mechanized mowing can kill 38–95% of chicks in a given site, and losses average 50% of first brood chicks and somewhat less than 40% of second brood chicks.[11] The influence of weather on chick survival is limited; although chick growth is faster in dry or warm weather, the effects are relatively small. Unlike many precocial species, chicks are fed by their mother to a greater or lesser extent until they become independent, and this may cushion them from adverse conditions. The number of live chicks hatched is more important than the weather, with lower survival in large broods.[34] The annual adult survival rate is under 30%,[33][35] although some individuals may live for 5–7 years.[36]

Feeding

The corn crake is omnivorous, but mainly feeds on invertebrates, including earthworms, slugs and snails, spiders, beetles, dragonflies, grasshoppers and other insects. In the breeding areas, it is a predator of Sitona weevils, which infest legume crops.[11] and in the past consumed large amounts of the former grassland pests, leatherjackets and wireworms.[37] This crake will also eat small frogs and mammals, and plant material including grass seed and cereal grain. Its diet on the wintering grounds is generally similar, but includes locally available items such as termites, cockroaches and dung beetles. Food is taken from the ground, low-growing plants and from inside grass tussocks; the crake may search leaf litter with its bill, and run in pursuit of active prey. Hunting is normally in cover, but, particularly in the wintering areas, it will occasionally feed on grassy tracks or dirt roads.[11] Indigestible material is regurgitated as 1 cm (0.39 in) pellets.[23] Chicks are fed mainly on animal food, and when fully grown they may fly with the parents up to 6.4 km (4.0 mi) to visit supplementary feeding areas. As with other rails, grit is swallowed to help break up food in the stomach.[11][38]

Predators and parasites

large black and white stork
The white stork will kill chicks exposed by early mowing.

Predators on the breeding grounds include feral and domestic cats, introduced American mink, feral ferrets, weasels, rats, otters and red foxes, and birds including the common buzzard and hooded crow.[11] In Lithuania, the introduced raccoon dog has also been recorded as taking corn crakes. When chicks are exposed by rapid mowing, they may be taken by large birds including the white stork, harriers and other birds of prey, gulls and corvids.[39] At undisturbed sites nests and broods are rarely attacked, as reflected in a high breeding success. There is a record of a corn crake on migration through Gabon being killed by a black sparrowhawk.[11]

The widespread fluke Prosthogonimus ovatus, which lives in the oviducts of birds, has been recorded in the corn crake,[40] as have the parasitic worm Plagiorchis elegans,[41] the larvae of parasitic flies,[42] and hard ticks of the genera Haemaphysalis and Ixodes.[43]

During the reintroduction of corn crakes to England in the 2003 breeding season, enteritis and ill health in pre-release birds was due to bacteria of a pathogenic Campylobacter species. Subsequently, microbiology tests were done to detect infected individuals and to find the source of the bacteria in their environment.[44]

Status

Old photo of hay wagon
Tractor in crops
The move from manual to mechanised hay-making has seriously threatened the European breeding population.

Until 2010, despite a breeding range estimated at 12,400,000 km2 (4,800,000 sq mi), the corn crake was classified as near threatened on the IUCN Red List because of serious declines in Europe, but improved monitoring in Russia indicates that anticipated losses there have not occurred and numbers have remained stable or possibly increased. It is therefore now classed as least concern, since the major populations in Russia and Kazakhstan are not expected to change much in the short term. There are an estimated 1.3–2.0 million breeding pairs in Europe, three-quarters of which are in European Russia, and a further 515,000–1,240,000 pairs in Asiatic Russia; the total Eurasian population has been estimated at between 5.45 and 9.72 million individuals. In much of the western half of its range, there have been long-term declines that are expected to continue, although conservation measures have enabled numbers to grow in several countries, including a five-fold increase in Finland, and a doubling in the UK.[30] In the Netherlands, there were 33 breeding territories in 1996, but this number had increased to at least 500 by 1998.[45]

The breeding corn crake population had begun to decline in the 19th century, but the process gained pace after World War II.[46] The main cause of the steep declines in much of Europe is the loss of nests and chicks from early mowing. Haymaking dates have moved forward in the past century due to faster crop growth, made possible by land drainage and the use of fertilisers, and the move from manual grass-cutting using scythes to mechanical mowers, at first horse-drawn and later pulled by tractors. Mechanisation also means that large areas can be cut quickly, leaving the crake with no alternative sites to raise either a first brood if suitable habitat has gone, or a replacement brood if the first nest is destroyed.[39] The pattern of mowing, typically in a circular pattern from the outside of a field to its centre, gives little chance of escape for the chicks, which are also exposed to potential animal predators. Adults can often escape the mowers, although some incubating females sit tight on the nest, with fatal results.[11]

page of recipe book
Mrs Beeton's recipe

Loss of habitat is the other major threat to the corn crake. Apart from the reduced suitability of drained and fertilised silage fields compared to traditional hay meadows, in western Europe the conversion of grassland to arable has been aided by subsidies, and further east the collapse of collective farming has led to the abandonment and lack of management of much land in this important breeding area.[39] More localised threats include floods in spring,[47] and disturbance by roads or wind farms.[39] This bird is edible; when they were common in England, Mrs Beeton recommended roasting four on a skewer.[48] More significant than direct hunting is the loss of many birds, up to 14,000 a year, in Egypt, where migrating birds are captured in nets set for the quail with which they often migrate.[12] Although this may account for 0.5–2.7% of the European population, the losses to this form of hunting are less than when the targeted species were more numerous and predictable.[49]

Most European countries have taken steps to conserve the corn crake and produce national management policies; there is also an overall European action plan.[50] The focus of conservation effort is to monitor populations and ecology and to improve survival, principally through changing the timing and method of hay harvesting.[30] Later cutting gives time for breeding to be completed, and leaving uncut strips at the edges of fields and cutting from the centre outwards reduces the casualties from mowing.[11] Implementing these changes is predicted to stop the population decline if the measures are applied on a sufficiently large scale.[51] Reduction of illegal hunting, and protection in countries where hunting is still allowed, are also conservation aims.[30] Reintroduction of the corn crake is being attempted in England, and breeding sites are scheduled for protection in many other countries.[52] Where breeding sites impinge on urban areas, there are cost implications, estimated in one German study at several million euros per corn crake.[53] The corn crake does not appear to be seriously threatened on its wintering grounds and may benefit from deforestation, which creates more open habitats.[28]

In culture

Most rails are secretive wetland birds that have made little cultural impression, but as a formerly common farmland bird with a loud nocturnal call that sometimes led to disturbed sleep for rural dwellers, the corn crake has acquired a variety of folk names and some commemoration in literature.[12]

Names

old drawing of a corn crake
Land rail, by Thomas Bewick

The favoured name for this species among naturalists has changed over the years, with "landrail" and variants of "corncrake" being preferred at various times. "Crake gallinule" also had a period of popularity between 1768 and 1813.[54] The originally Older Scots "cornecrake" was popularised by Thomas Bewick, who used this term in his 1797 A History of British Birds.[55] Other Scots names include "corn scrack" and "quailzie"; the latter term, like "king of the quail",[55] "grass quail",[56] the French "roi de caille", and the German "Wachtelkönig" refer to the association with the small gamebird.[12] Another name, "daker", has been variously interpreted as onomatopoeic,[57] or derived from the Old Norse ager-hoene, meaning "cock of the field";[55] variants include "drake", "drake Hen" and "gorse drake".[58]

In literature

Corn crakes are the subject of three stanzas of the seventeenth century poet Andrew Marvell's "Upon Appleton House", written in 1651 about the North Yorkshire country estate of Thomas Fairfax. The narrator depicts the scene of a mower cutting the grass, before his "whistling Sithe" unknowingly "carves the Rail". The farmhand draws out the scythe "all bloody from its breast" and "does the stroke detest". It continues with a stanza that demonstrates the problematic nature of the corn crake's nesting habits:[59]

Unhappy Birds! What does it boot
To build below the Grass' Root;
When Lowness is unsafe as Hight,
And Chance o'ertakes, what scapeth spight?

John Clare, the nineteenth-century English poet based in Northamptonshire, wrote "The Landrail", a semi-comic piece which is primarily about the difficulty of seeing corn crakes – as opposed to hearing them. In the fourth verse he exclaims: "Tis like a fancy everywhere/A sort of living doubt". Clare wrote about corn crakes in his prose works too, and his writings help to clarify the distribution of this rail when it was far more widespread than now.[60]

The Finnish poet Eino Leino also wrote about the bird in his poem "Nocturne".[61]

The corncrake's song rings in my ears,
above the rye a full moon sails

The proverbial use of the corn crake's call to describe someone with a grating or unmelodious voice is illustrated in the quotation "thanks to a wee woman with a voice like a corncrake who believed she was an apprentice angel".[62] This usage dates from at least the first half of the nineteenth century,[63] and continues through to the present.[64]

In music

In The Pogues "Lullaby of London" Shane MacGowan uses the corncrake's cry as a motif to illustrate his alienation in the city, he sings:

Though there is no lonesome corncrake's cry
Or sorrow and delight
You can hear the cars
And the shouts from bars
And the laughter and the fights[65]

In The Decemberists "The Hazards of Love 2 (Wager All)" Colin Meloy references the corn crake's call, singing: "And we'll lie until the corn crake crows."[66]

References

  1. ^ a b BirdLife International (2016). "Crex crex". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22692543A86147127. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22692543A86147127.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ Stone, Witmer (1894). "A Review of the Old World Rallinae". Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 46: 130–149.
  3. ^ Taylor & van Perlo 2000, p. 30
  4. ^ Livezey 1998, p. 2098
  5. ^ Linnaeus, Carolus (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata (in Latin). Vol. 1. Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 153.
  6. ^ Bechstein, Johann Matthäus (1803). Ornithologisches Taschenbuch von und für Deutschland oder kurze Beschreibung aller Vogel Deutschlands [Paperback by and for Germany or a Brief Description of All Birds in Germany] (in German). Vol. 2. Leipzig: Richter. p. 336. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.62820.
  7. ^ Sclater, Philip Lutley (1896). "Remarks on the divergencies between the "Rules for naming Animals" of the German Zoological Society and the Stricklandian Code of Nomenclature". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 54 (2): 306–319.
  8. ^ Wood, John George (1855). The Illustrated Natural History. London: G. Routledge. p. 302.
  9. ^ Smith, John Maynard; Harper, David (2003). Animal Signals. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 11. ISBN 0-19-852685-7.
  10. ^ "Bustards to Limpkin". IOC World Bird List. International Ornithologists' Union. Archived from the original on 22 May 2011. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Taylor & van Perlo 2000, pp. 320–327
  12. ^ a b c d e f Cocker, Mark; Mabey, Richard (2005). Birds Britannica. London: Chatto & Windus. pp. 178–180. ISBN 0-7011-6907-9.
  13. ^ Osiejuk, Tomasz S.; Olech, Bogumia (2004). "Amplitude spectra of Corncrake calls: what do they signalise?" (PDF). Animal Biology. 54 (2): 207–220. doi:10.1163/1570756041445218. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-03.
  14. ^ Boswall, J. (1998). "Answering the calls of nature: human mimicry of avian voice" (PDF). Transactions of Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society. 92: 10–11. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-12-01.
  15. ^ Mason, A. G. (1940). "On Some Experiments with Corncrakes". The Irish Naturalists' Journal. 7 (9): 226–237. JSTOR 25532979.
  16. ^ Ottvall, Richard (1999). "Female Corncrake (Crex crex) singing in the wild". Journal of Ornithology. 140 (4): 453–456. doi:10.1007/BF01650989. S2CID 46446040.
  17. ^ Bibby, Colin J.; Burgess, Neil D.; Hill, David A.; Mustoe, Simon; Lambton, Sandra (2000). Bird Census Techniques. Kidlington, Oxfordshire: Academic Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-12-095831-3.
  18. ^ Hudson, Anne V.; Stowe, Tim J.; Aspinall, Simon J. (1990). "Status and distribution of Corncrakes in Britain in 1988" (PDF). British Birds. 83 (5): 173–187.
  19. ^ Peake, T.M.; McGregor, P.K. (2001). "Corncrake Crex crex census estimates: a conservation application of vocal individuality" (PDF). Animal Biodiversity and Conservation. 24 (1): 81–90.
  20. ^ Newman, Kenneth (2002). Newman's Birds of Southern Africa. Cape Town: Struik. pp. 120–122. ISBN 1-86872-735-1.
  21. ^ a b Green, Rhys E.; Rocamora, Gerard; Schäffer, Norbert (1997). "Populations, ecology and threats to the Corncrake Crex crex in Europe" (PDF). Vogelwelt. 118: 117–134. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-01-12.
  22. ^ a b c d Bräunlich, Axel; Rank, Michael (2001). Schäffer, N.; Mammen, U. (eds.). Notes on the occurrence of the Corncrake (Crex crex) in Asia and in the Pacific region (PDF). Proceedings International Corncrake Workshop 1998. Hilpoltstein, Germany. pp. 10–13. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-01-12.
  23. ^ a b c d e Snow, David; Perrins, Christopher M., eds. (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 1 (concise ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 496–499. ISBN 0-19-854099-X.
  24. ^ a b Pitches, Adrian (2013). "Corn Crakes—a Scottish conservation success story". British Birds. 106 (5): 241–242.
  25. ^ "Corncrake". New Zealand Birds Online.
  26. ^ Skerrett, Adrian; Betts, Michael; Bullock, Ian; Fisher, David; Gerlach, Ron; Lucking, Rob; Phillips, John; Scott, Bob (2006). "Third report of the Seychelles Bird Records Committee" (PDF). Bulletin of the African Bird Club. 13 (1): 65–72. doi:10.5962/p.309784.
  27. ^ Bourne, W.P.R. (1957). "The breeding birds of Bermuda". Ibis. 99 (1): 94–105. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1957.tb01935.x.
  28. ^ a b Taylor & van Perlo 2000, pp. 316–320
  29. ^ Pain, Debbie; Green, Rhys; Clark, Nigel (2011). "Bird on the edge: can the Spoon-billed Sandpiper Eurynorhynchus pygmeus be saved?" (PDF). BirdingASIA. 15: 26–35. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-04-02. Retrieved 2013-03-03.
  30. ^ a b c d "Species factsheet: Crex crex". BirdLife International. 2015. Retrieved 27 May 2015.
  31. ^ Seebohm, Henry (1896). Coloured Figures of the Eggs of British Birds. Edited posthumously by Richard Bowdler Sharpe. Sheffield: Pawson & Brailsford. p. 83.
  32. ^ Graham, Jamie (2009). "Corn Crake pair-bonding and nesting behaviour" (PDF). British Birds. 102 (4): 217.
  33. ^ a b Robinson, R.A. (2005). "Corncrake Crex crex (Linnaeus, 1758)". BirdFacts: profiles of birds occurring in Britain & Ireland (BTO Research Report 407). Thetford: BTO. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
  34. ^ Tyler, G.A.; Green, Rhys E. (2004). "Effects of weather on the survival and growth of Corncrake Crex crex chicks". Ibis. 146 (1): 69–76. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2004.00225.x.
  35. ^ Green, Rhys E. (2004). "A new method for estimating the adult survival rate of the Corncrake Crex crex and comparison with estimates from ring-recovery and ring-recapture data" (PDF). Ibis. 146 (3): 501–508. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919x.2004.00291.x.
  36. ^ Hume, Rob (2009). RSPB Complete Birds of Britain and Europe. Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 264. ISBN 978-1-4053-4589-7.
  37. ^ Stone, Witmer (1932). "Collinge on the Corn-crake" (PDF). The Auk. 49 (1): 126–127. doi:10.2307/4076773. JSTOR 4076773.
  38. ^ Taylor & van Perlo 2000, pp. 39–41
  39. ^ a b c d Koffijberg & Schaffer 2006, p. 21
  40. ^ Rothschild, Miriam; Clay, Theresa (1953). Fleas, Flukes and Cuckoos. A Study of Bird Parasites. London: Collins. pp. 204–205.
  41. ^ Yildirimhan, Hikmet S.; Bursey, Charles R.; Altunel, F. Naci (2011). "Helminth parasites of the Balkan green lizard, Lacerta trilineata Bedriaga 1886, from Bursa, Turkey" (PDF). Turkish Journal of Zoology. 35 (3): 1–17. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-08-19. Retrieved 2011-06-18.
  42. ^ Matyukhin, V.; Krivosheina, M.G. (2008). "Contribution to the knowledge of Diptera (Insecta) parasitizing on birds". Entomological Review. 88 (2): 258–259. doi:10.1134/S0013873808020115. S2CID 21767567.
  43. ^ Hoogstraal, Harry; Traylor, Melvin A.; Gaber, Sobhy; Malakatis, George; Guindy, Ezzat; Helmy, Ibrahim (1964). "Ticks (Ixodidae) on migrating birds in Egypt, spring and fall 1962". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 30 (3): 355–367. PMC 2554818. PMID 14163959.
  44. ^ Mudenda, N.; Sainsbury, A.W.; Macgregor, S.K.; Flach, E.J.; Owen, R.J. (2008). "Prevalence of Campylobacter species in corncrakes (Crex crex) in a reintroduction programme in the UK". Veterinary Record. 163 (9): 274–275. doi:10.1136/vr.163.9.274. PMID 18757906. S2CID 45524917.
  45. ^ van den Berg, Arnoud B. (1999). "European news 45". British Birds. 92 (6): 278–300.
  46. ^ Koffijberg & Schaffer 2006, p. 6
  47. ^ Donaghy, A. (2007). "Corncrakes: a lot done, more to do". Wings. 46: 26–27.
  48. ^ Beeton, Isabella (1861). The Book of Household Management. London: S.O. Beeton. p. 210.
  49. ^ Newton, Ian (2010). Bird Migration (Collins New Naturalist Library 113). London: Collins. p. 532. ISBN 978-0-00-730732-6.
  50. ^ International Single Species Action Plan for the Conservation of the Corncrake, June 2006.
  51. ^ Green, Rhys E.; Tyler, G.A.; Stowe, T.J.; Newton, A.V. (1997). "A simulation model of the effect of mowing of agricultural grassland on the breeding success of the corncrake (Crex crex)". Journal of Zoology. 243 (1): 81–115. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1997.tb05758.x.
  52. ^ Holden, Peter; Cleeves, Tim (2010). RSPB Handbook of British Birds. Robertsbridge, East Sussex: Christopher Helm. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-4081-2735-3.
  53. ^ Matauschek, Jan Marcus (2005). "The impact of endangered species law on the real estate development process explored with cost-benefit analysis: The case of the corncrake in Hamburg/Germany" (PDF). German Working Papers in Law and Economics. 2005 (Paper 7): 1–30.
  54. ^ Lockwood 1984, p. 93
  55. ^ a b c Hull, Robin (2001). Scottish Birds: Culture and Tradition. Edinburgh: Mercat Press. p. 156. ISBN 1-84183-025-9.
  56. ^ Coward, Thomas Alfred (1930). The Birds of the British Isles and their Eggs. London: Frederick Warne. p. 326.
  57. ^ Lockwood 1984, p. 52
  58. ^ Lockwood 1984, p. 55
  59. ^ Smith, Nigel (2006). Marvell: The Poems of Andrew Marvell (Longman Annotated English Poets). London: Longman. p. 210. ISBN 978-1-4058-3283-0.
  60. ^ Mynott, Jeremy (2009). Birdscapes: Birds in Our Imagination and Experience. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-691-13539-7.
  61. ^ Leino, Eino. "Nocturne" (in Finnish). Bosley, Keith (translator). Kainuun Eino Leino [Eino Leino Society]. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
  62. ^ Bell, John L. (1998). States of Bliss & Yearning. Glasgow: Wild Goose Publications. p. 86. ISBN 1-901557-07-3.
  63. ^ Morgan, Sir Thomas Charles; Lady Morgan (1841). The Book Without a Name. Vol. 1. New York: Wiley and Putnam. p. 162.
  64. ^ Aston, Elizabeth (2005). The Exploits & Adventures of Miss Alethea Darcy. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 198. ISBN 0-7432-6193-3.
  65. ^ "Lullaby Of London Lyrics And Chords". Irish folk songs. Retrieved 8 April 2018.
  66. ^ "The Decemberists - The Hazards of Love". The Decemberists. Archived from the original on 2018-12-01. Retrieved 30 November 2018.
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Crex: Brief Summary

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The corn crake, corncrake or landrail (Crex crex) is a bird in the rail family. It breeds in Europe and Asia as far east as western China, and migrates to Africa for the Northern Hemisphere's winter. It is a medium-sized crake with buff- or grey-streaked brownish-black upperparts, chestnut markings on the wings, and blue-grey underparts with rust-coloured and white bars on the flanks and undertail. The strong bill is flesh-toned, the iris is pale brown, and the legs and feet are pale grey. Juveniles are similar in plumage to adults, and downy chicks are black, as with all rails. There are no subspecies, although individuals from the east of the breeding range tend to be slightly paler than their western counterparts. The male's call is a loud krek krek, from which the scientific name is derived. The corn crake is larger than its closest relative, the African crake, which shares its wintering range; that species is also darker-plumaged, and has a plainer face.

The corn crake's breeding habitat is grassland, particularly hayfields, and it uses similar environments on the wintering grounds. This secretive species builds a nest of grass leaves in a hollow in the ground and lays 6–14 cream-coloured eggs which are covered with rufous blotches. These hatch in 19–20 days, and the black precocial chicks fledge after about five weeks. This crake is in steep decline across much of its former breeding range because modern farming practices often destroy nests before breeding is completed. The corn crake is omnivorous but mainly feeds on invertebrates, the occasional small frog or mammal, and plant material including grass seed and cereal grain. Threats include dogs, cats, other introduced and feral mammals, large birds, various parasites and diseases.

Although numbers have declined steeply in western Europe, this bird is classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List because of its huge range and large, apparently stable, populations in Russia and Kazakhstan. Numbers in western China are more significant than previously thought, and conservation measures have facilitated an increased population in some countries which had suffered the greatest losses. Despite its elusive nature, the loud call has ensured the corn crake has been noted in literature, and garnered a range of local and dialect names.

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Krekso (genro) ( Esperanto )

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Krekso (Crex) estas genro de birdoj de la familio de Raledoj kaj ordo de Gruoformaj kun ununura specio, nome Krekso, Crex crex. La tuta familio temas pri birdoj rilataj al akva medio, sed tiuj ĉi specio kaj genro rilatas pli al herbejoj kaj al terkulturejoj ol al marĉa medio, sed ĉiukaze en tiu medio preferas ne la plej sekajn lokojn, sed iom humidajn kaj malsekajn por havi pli da besteta manĝaĵo. Ili estas pli flavaj ol grizaj. Sed idoj estas nigraj kiel tiuj de aliaj raledoj.

Foje estis inkludita en genro Crex alia specio alimaniere inkludita en genro Crecopsis, nome Crecopsis egregia, tio estas Afrika krekso.

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Crex ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Crex es un género de aves gruiformes perteneciente a la familia Rallidae. Sus especies se distribuyen por Eurasia paleártica y África.[3]

Especies

Se reconocen las dos especies siguientes:[3][4]

Referencias

  1. Bechstein, Johann Matthäus (1803). Ornithologisches Taschenbuch von und für Deutschland oder kurze Beschreibung aller Vogel Deutschlands, vol 2 (en alemán). Leipzig: Richter. p. 336.
  2. Zoonomen Nomenclatural data (2015) Alan P. Peterson. Gruiformes. Acceso: 3 de septiembre de 2015.
  3. a b Gill, F.; Donsker, D. (Eds.) (2015). Rails, gallinules & cranes. IOC World Bird List versión 5.3.
  4. Bernis, F; De Juana, E; Del Hoyo, J; Fernández-Cruz, M; Ferrer, X; Sáez-Royuela, R; Sargatal, J (1996). «Nombres en castellano de las aves del mundo recomendados por la Sociedad Española de Ornitología (Tercera parte: Opisthocomiformes, Gruiformes y Charadriiformes)». Ardeola. Handbook of the Birds of the World (Madrid: SEO/BirdLife) 43 (2): 231-238. ISSN 0570-7358. Consultado el 26 de abril de 2015.

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Crex: Brief Summary ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Crex es un género de aves gruiformes perteneciente a la familia Rallidae. Sus especies se distribuyen por Eurasia paleártica y África.​

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Rääkät ( Finnish )

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Rääkät (Crex) on rantakanojen heimoon kuuluva lintusuku.

Rääkkiin (Crex) kuuluvia lajeja

Lähteet

  1. ITIS: Crex (englanniksi)

Aiheesta muualla

Tämä lintuihin liittyvä artikkeli on tynkä. Voit auttaa Wikipediaa laajentamalla artikkelia.
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Rääkät: Brief Summary ( Finnish )

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Rääkät (Crex) on rantakanojen heimoon kuuluva lintusuku.

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Crex ( French )

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Le genre Crex regroupe deux oiseaux appartenant à la famille des Rallidae.

Liste des espèces

D'après la classification de référence (version 2.2, 2009) du Congrès ornithologique international (ordre phylogénique) :

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Crex: Brief Summary ( French )

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Le genre Crex regroupe deux oiseaux appartenant à la famille des Rallidae.

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Crex ( Italian )

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Il re di quaglie o gallinella terrestre[2] (Crex crex (Linnaeus, 1758)), unica specie del genere Crex Bechstein, 1803, è un uccello della famiglia dei Rallidi originario dell'Eurasia centrale e occidentale[3].

Tassonomia

I Rallidi sono una famiglia di uccelli che comprende quasi 150 specie. Sebbene le loro origini risalgano a tempi remotissimi, il maggior numero di specie e le forme più primitive sono diffuse nel Vecchio Mondo e gli studiosi ritengono quindi che la famiglia abbia avuto origine qui. La tassonomia dei piccoli Rallidi è piuttosto complicata, ma possiamo affermare con certezza che il parente più stretto del re di quaglie è il re di quaglie africano, attualmente classificato nel genere monotipico Crecopsis[4][5].

Il re di quaglie è stato descritto per la prima volta da Linneo nel suo Systema Naturae del 1758, con il nome Rallus crex[6], ma venne in seguito trasferito nel genere Crex, creato dal naturalista e ornitologo tedesco Johann Matthäus Bechstein nel 1803, e battezzato Crex pratensis[7]. Il nome specifico crex, comunque, godeva del diritto di priorità rispetto al pratensis di Bechstein, quindi la specie venne denominata Crex crex, nome con la quale è nota ancora oggi[8]. Il nome scientifico, Crex crex, derivato dal greco antico κρεξ, è onomatopeico e si riferisce al ripetitivo richiamo stridente dell'animale[9][10]. In inglese la specie è nota come Corn Crake (Corncrake in passato), che vuol dire «rallo del grano», per la sua abitudine di nidificare nei campi di fieno o cereali, piuttosto che nelle paludi, come fa la maggior parte dei Rallidi[3].

Descrizione

Il re di quaglie è un rallide di medie dimensioni: misura 27–30 cm di lunghezza e ha un'apertura alare di 42–53 cm. I maschi pesano in media 165 g e le femmine 145 g. Il maschio adulto presenta la sommità del capo e tutte le regioni superiori di colore marrone-nero, striate di camoscio o grigio. Le copritrici sono di un caratteristico colore castano, con alcune strisce bianche. La faccia, il collo e il petto sono grigio-blu, a eccezione di una striscia marrone chiaro estesa dalla base del becco fin sopra all'occhio, l'addome è bianco, e i fianchi e il sottocoda sono segnati da strisce bianche e castane. Il forte becco è color carne, l'iride è marrone chiaro, e le zampe e i piedi grigio chiaro. Rispetto al maschio, la femmina presenta regioni superiori dai toni più caldi e una striscia sopraoculare più sottile e meno vistosa. Al di fuori della stagione degli amori, le regioni superiori di entrambi i sessi divengono più scure e quelle inferiori meno grigie. I giovani hanno un aspetto simile a quello degli adulti, ma hanno le regioni superiori di una tonalità più giallastra, mentre il grigio di quelle inferiori è rimpiazzato da un marrone-camoscio. I pulcini sono ricoperti da un piumino nero, come quelli di tutti gli altri Rallidi. Non vengono riconosciute sottospecie e tutte le popolazioni mostrano una grande variazione individuale nella colorazione; man mano che ci si dirige verso i confini orientali dell'areale, gli uccelli assumono gradualmente una colorazione più chiara e grigia. Dopo la nidificazione gli adulti effettuano una muta completa, che termina generalmente agli ultimi di agosto o ai primi di settembre, prima della migrazione verso l'Africa sud-orientale. In Africa, prima del ritorno, gli uccelli sono sottoposti a una muta parziale pre-nidificatoria, che coinvolge soprattutto il piumaggio di testa, corpo e coda. Gli esemplari giovani effettuano una muta delle penne di testa e corpo circa cinque settimane dopo la schiusa[11].

Nei terreni di svernamento il re di quaglie condivide l'areale con il rallo africano, ma si differenzia da esso per le dimensioni maggiori, la colorazione più chiara delle regioni superiori, la colorazione tenné delle ali e la diversa colorazione delle regioni inferiori. In volo, ha ali più lunghe e meno arrotondate e battiti d'ala più deboli del re di quaglie africano, e mostra il margine bianco sulla superficie interna dell'ala. Sia nell'areale di nidificazione che in quello di svernamento, è facile distinguerlo dagli altri Rallidi, dal momento che le specie simpatriche sono più piccole, presentano disegni bianchi sulle regioni superiori, hanno una colorazione differente sulle regioni inferiori e il becco più breve. In volo il re di quaglie può ricordare un galliforme, ma il disegno castano sulle ali e le zampe tenute penzoloni lo rendono inconfondibile[11].

Richiamo

Nei terreni di nidificazione, il richiamo di avviso del maschio del re di quaglie è un profondo, gracchiante e ripetitivo krek krek, emesso generalmente da un basso posatoio con la testa e il collo tenuti quasi verticali e il becco aperto. Questo richiamo può essere udito da 1,5 km di distanza, e serve a ribadire il possesso di un determinato territorio, ad attrarre le femmine e a lanciare sfide ai maschi invasori. Dal momento che vi sono leggere differenze nelle vocalizzazioni emesse, è possibile riconoscere ciascun maschio dal proprio richiamo. Agli inizi della stagione di nidificazione, il richiamo viene emesso quasi continuamente di notte, ma anche durante il giorno[11]. Può essere ripetuto per più di 20.000 volte a notte, con un picco registrato tra mezzanotte e le tre[12]. Tale richiamo si è sviluppato per rendere più manifesta la posizione del maschio, dal momento che la specie vive nel fitto della vegetazione[13]. La frequenza dei richiami si riduce dopo poche settimane, ma può di nuovo intensificarsi verso il termine del periodo della deposizione delle uova, prima di cessare del tutto con la fine della stagione riproduttiva. Per attirare i maschi di questa specie, si può imitare meccanicamente il loro richiamo strofinando un pezzo di legno con un bastone nodoso o una carta di credito su un pettine o una cerniera lampo[12]. Il maschio produce anche una sorta di ringhio, emesso con il becco chiuso durante le manifestazioni aggressive[11].

La femmina del re di quaglie può emettere un richiamo simile a quello del maschio, ma in più produce un caratteristico latrato, dal ritmo simile al richiamo principale, ma meno stridulo[14]. Produce anche una specie di cinguettio e un pigolio, oo-oo-oo, per chiamare i pulcini. Questi ultimi emettono un flebile peeick-peeick di contatto, e un pigolio impiegato per richiedere il cibo[11]. A causa della difficoltà nell'avvistare la specie, le popolazioni vengono censite conteggiando i richiami dei maschi emessi tra le 23:00 e le 03:00[15]; questi uccelli non si spostano molto durante la notte, mentre di giorno possono vagabondare anche per 600 m: i ricercatori, quindi, potrebbero conteggiare per due volte lo stesso esemplare[16]. Il conteggio dei maschi, tuttavia, porta a sottostimare la vera entità di una popolazione di quasi il 30%, e tale discrepanza può anche essere maggiore, dal momento che in una determinata notte solo l'80% dei maschi presenti in una certa area può cantare[17]. In Africa il re di quaglie è sempre silenzioso[18].

Distribuzione e habitat

Field of hay with green field beyond
I campi di fieno sono il sito di nidificazione preferito dei re di quaglie.

L'areale di nidificazione del re di quaglie si estende dalla Gran Bretagna e dall'Irlanda, attraverso l'Europa, fino alla Siberia centrale. Attualmente scomparso da gran parte del suo areale storico, in passato questo uccello occupava tutte le zone a esso favorevoli tra i 41 e i 62° nord di latitudine[19]. Una popolazione abbastanza numerosa è presente anche in Cina occidentale[20], ma la specie nidifica solo raramente nelle regioni settentrionali della Spagna e in Turchia. Le vecchie testimonianze secondo le quali la specie nidificherebbe anche in Sudafrica sono errate, e derivano dall'errore di identificazione di alcune uova conservate in una collezione museale, che, sebbene portino la dicitura «re di quaglie», appartengono in realtà al re di quaglie africano.

Il re di quaglie sverna perlopiù in Africa, in un'area che dalla Repubblica Democratica del Congo e dalle regioni centrali della Tanzania giunge fino al Sudafrica orientale. A nord di quest'area, viene avvistato soprattutto come specie migratrice, ma raramente sverna anche nel Nordafrica e a ovest e a nord della tipica zona di svernamento dell'Africa sud-orientale. La maggior parte della popolazione sudafricana, costituita da circa 2000 esemplari, risiede nel KwaZulu-Natal e in quella che in passato era la Provincia del Transvaal, ma le stime riguardanti le altre regioni africane sono incerte. Nel XIX secolo, quando la specie era molto più numerosa, un gran numero di re di quaglie veniva avvistato nell'Europa occidentale, soprattutto in Gran Bretagna e in Irlanda, tra dicembre e febbraio[21].

Old painting of two adults with a black, downy chick
Adulti e pulcino.

Questo rallo migra verso l'Africa attraverso due rotte principali: una occidentale, attraverso Marocco e Algeria, e una orientale, più importante, attraverso l'Egitto. Di passo, è stato avvistato in quasi tutti i Paesi situati tra l'areale di nidificazione e quello di svernamento, compresa gran parte dell'Africa occidentale[11] e quelle zone dell'Asia meridionale poste tra l'estremità orientale dell'areale di nidificazione e l'Africa. Talvolta esemplari nomadi sono stati segnalati in Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Australia[20], Seychelles[22], Bermuda[23], Canada, Stati Uniti, Groenlandia[11], Islanda, Fær Øer, Azzorre, Madeira e isole Canarie[21].

Il re di quaglie è soprattutto una specie di pianura, ma nidifica fino a quote di 1400 m, sulle Alpi, 2700 m, in Cina, e 3000 m, in Russia[20][21]. Come habitat di nidificazione in Eurasia, la specie prediligeva in passato i prati lungo il corso dei fiumi, con erbe alte e folte, come carici e iris. Ora si incontra generalmente nelle fredde praterie umide impiegate per la produzione di fieno, soprattutto dove viene praticata un'agricoltura di tipo tradizionale, con una raccolta di fieno non troppo eccessiva e un limitato impiego di fertilizzanti. Vive anche nelle zone erbose prive di alberi delle regioni montuose, della taiga, delle regioni costiere o dove queste ultime sono state create dagli incendi. Si può incontrare anche ai margini delle zone umide, ma non si spinge mai nelle paludi vere e proprie, così come nelle aree aperte dove la vegetazione supera i 50 cm di altezza o è troppo fitta da impedire di camminarci attraverso. Le boscaglie o le siepi possono essere utilizzate come luoghi di richiamo. Le distese erbose dove l'erba non viene recisa dagli uomini o dagli animali da pascolo divengono troppo intricate per essere utilizzate per la nidificazione, ma talvolta il re di quaglie nidifica anche in campi di cereali, piselli, colza, trifoglio o patate. Dopo la nidificazione, gli adulti si spostano verso zone dove la vegetazione è più alta, come canneti o distese di iris e ortiche, per effettuare la muta, per poi tornare ai campi di fieno e foraggio per covare una seconda volta[11]. In Cina, la specie nidifica anche nei campi di lino[20]. Sebbene i maschi vengano spesso visti cantare in campi di fieno troppo sfruttati o in distese cerealicole, in tali aree si registra un basso successo riproduttivo, ed è più probabile che la nidificazione avvenga ai margini dei campi o nelle zone vicine lasciate a maggese[19].

Quando sverna in Africa, il re di quaglie occupa praterie e savane aride, ove la vegetazione misura 30–200 cm di altezza, comprese le aree colpite stagionalmente dagli incendi e, più raramente, le distese di carici o i canneti. Si incontra anche in campi incolti e abbandonati, nelle zone di erba incolta degli aeroporti e ai margini dei campi coltivati. In Sudafrica è presente fino ad almeno 1750 m di quota[11]. Sebbene talvolta condivida l'areale con il re di quaglie africano, quest'ultimo predilige generalmente praterie più umide di quelle abitate dal re di quaglie, nonché quelle dove la vegetazione è meno alta[24]. Durante la migrazione, il re di quaglie si può incontrare anche in campi di grano e attorno ai campi da golf[11].

Biologia

upstretched head and neck
Un adulto.

Il re di quaglie è un uccello difficile da avvistare nei suoi siti di nidificazione: generalmente rimane nascosto tra la vegetazione, ma talvolta può spingersi su terreni aperti. Occasionalmente, alcuni esemplari possono divenire molto fiduciosi; per cinque estati consecutive, un esemplare sull'isola scozzese di Tiree si introdusse in una cucina per nutrirsi degli avanzi, e, nel 1999, un altro re di quaglie che svernava su un'altra isola scozzese, Barra, penetrò in un pollaio per beccare il mangime dopo che i polli avevano finito di mangiare[12]. In Africa, ha abitudini più riservate del re di quaglie africano, e, diversamente dal suo simile, viene avvistato solo di rado sul terreno aperto, sebbene occasionalmente vada in cerca di cibo sui sentieri o ai lati delle strade. Il re di quaglie è più attivo all'alba e al crepuscolo, dopo una forte precipitazione o nei periodi di pioggia non troppo intensa. Il suo volo è generalmente debole e frullante, sebbene non quanto quello del rallo africano. Sulle lunghe distanze, come durante una migrazione, è capace di un volo più potente e resistente, durante il quale tiene le zampe sollevate. Cammina alzando molto le zampe, e può correre rapidamente tra l'erba tenendo il corpo, appiattito lateralmente, orizzontale. All'occasione, è anche in grado di nuotare. Quando viene stanato da un cane, può effettuare un breve volo di meno di 50 m, atterrando soprattutto dietro un cespuglio o un boschetto, e poi si rannicchia a terra. Se disturbato in una zona aperta, può correre per una breve distanza, con il corpo abbassato e il collo rivolto in avanti, per poi fermarsi a guardare l'inseguitore. Quando viene catturato può fingersi morto, per poi balzare di nuovo in piedi se scorge una via di uscita[11].

Nei terreni di svernamento il re di quaglie è solitario, e ogni esemplare occupa un territorio di 4,2-4,9 ha, sebbene l'esatta estensione totale sia piuttosto dubbia, dal momento che questi uccelli possono spostarsi a seguito di alluvioni o fienagioni o per seguire la crescita delle piante. Durante le migrazioni, si possono costituire stormi costituiti anche da 40 capi, associati talvolta alle quaglie. Le migrazioni avvengono di notte, e nei siti migliori ove gli stormi si riposano durante il giorno si possono radunare varie centinaia di esemplari[11]. La capacità di migrare è innata e non viene appresa dagli adulti; i pulcini allevati da uccelli cresciuti in cattività per dieci generazioni furono in grado di migrare in Africa e di ritornare al punto di partenza proprio come i giovani cresciuti in natura[25].

Alimentazione

Il re di quaglie è onnivoro, ma si nutre soprattutto di invertebrati, come lombrichi, limacce e chiocciole, ragni, Coleotteri, libellule, cavallette e altri insetti. Nelle aree di nidificazione, divora anche specie nocive come i curculioni del genere Sitona, che danneggiano le coltivazioni di legumi[11], le tipule e gli Elateridi, che in passato costituivano un vero flagello per le distese erbose[26]. Talvolta cattura anche rane e mammiferi di piccole dimensioni, mentre come sostanze vegetali consuma soprattutto semi di piante erbacee e chicchi di cereali. Nei terreni di svernamento la dieta è pressoché simile, ma comprende anche prede tipiche del luogo, come termiti, blatte e scarabei stercorari. Le prede vengono catturate sul terreno, tra le piante basse e tra i grossi ciuffi d'erba; l'uccello può scavare tra la lettiera di foglie con il becco, o correre all'inseguimento di una preda più attiva. Generalmente va in cerca di prede nel fitto della vegetazione, ma, soprattutto nelle zone di svernamento, può andare a caccia anche sui sentieri erbosi o sulle strade sterrate[11]. Le sostanze indigeribili vengono rigurgitate sotto forma di borre di 1 cm di larghezza[21]. I pulcini si nutrono soprattutto di sostanze animali, e quando sono pienamente sviluppati possono volare con i genitori fino a 6,4 km di distanza dal nido per visitare aree di foraggiamento addizionali. Così come altri Rallidi, il re di quaglie ingerisce piccoli sassolini per facilitare la digestione[11][27].

Riproduzione

cream-coloured egg with red-brown blotches
Uovo di re di quaglie.

Fino al 1995, si credeva che il re di quaglie fosse monogamo, ma i maschi occupano territori dai confini variabili e si accoppiano con due o più femmine, allontanandosi quando la deposizione delle uova è quasi completa. Il territorio dei maschi ricopre un'estensione variabile tra i 3 e i 51 ha, ma in media misura 15,7 ha. Le femmine occupano areali più piccoli, estesi solo per 5,5 ha. Il maschio allontana gli intrusi emettendo il proprio richiamo e assumendo una particolare postura, con le ali abbassate e la testa rivolta in avanti. Di solito basta questo per allontanare l'intruso; se esso non si muove, i due uccelli sollevano la testa e il collo e abbassano le ali fino a toccare il terreno. Poi corrono in circolo emettendo un richiamo gracchiante e lanciandosi l'uno addosso all'altro. Talvolta si può giungere a un combattimento vero e proprio, con gli uccelli che si scagliano addosso colpendosi con il becco e, talvolta, con le zampe. La femmina non prende parte alla difesa del territorio.

Nel corso del corteggiamento il maschio può porgere cibo alla compagna. Talvolta esegue anche una breve parata, tenendo il collo allungato, la testa rivolta verso il basso, la coda aperta a ventaglio e le ali aperte con le punte che toccano terra. Cerca poi di avvicinarsi alla femmina da dietro, per poi salirle sul dorso e accoppiarsi. Il nido è posto generalmente tra l'erba, talvolta in un luogo sicuro lungo una siepe, nei pressi di un albero o cespuglio isolato, o tra la fitta vegetazione. Dove l'erba non è alta abbastanza per dare inizio alla stagione della nidificazione, il primo nido può essere costruito su un prato o tra la vegetazione palustre, mentre il secondo viene costruito tra l'erba alta[11]. Il secondo nido può anche essere posto a un'altezza maggiore del primo, per approfittare delle erbe che crescono in collina, che si sviluppano dopo[1]. Il nido, ben nascosto nell'erba, viene costruito in una depressione o una cavità del suolo. Esso è fatto di fili d'erba secca e di altre sostanze vegetali intrecciate insieme, e imbottito con ciuffi più fini[28]. In passato si riteneva che la costruzione del nido fosse un compito esclusivo della femmina[21], ma nel corso di un recente studio effettuato in cattività è sempre stato il maschio a occuparsi di questo[29].

Il nido misura 12–15 cm di diametro ed è profondo 3–4 cm. La covata è composta da 6-14 uova, generalmente 8-12; esse sono ovali, leggermente lucide e di colore crema o dai toni verdi, blu o grigi, macchiettate di rosso-bruno. Misurano 37×26 mm e pesano circa 13-16 g[11], dei quali il 7% è costituito dal guscio[30]. Le uova vengono deposte a giorni alterni, ma nel corso della seconda covata possono venir deposte due uova al giorno. Della cova si occupa la sola femmina; la sua tendenza a rimanere immobile quando si sente minacciata, o di attendere l'ultimo momento per spiccare il volo, causa molti decessi durante la fienagione e la mietitura. Le uova si schiudono tutte insieme dopo 19-20 giorni, e i pulcini, precoci, lasciano il nido entro uno o due giorni. Essi vengono nutriti dalla femmina per tre o quattro giorni, ma in seguito si procurano il cibo da soli. I giovani si involano dopo 34-38 giorni. La seconda covata viene deposta circa 42 giorni dopo la prima, ma il periodo di incubazione è più breve, di 16-18 giorni. I piccoli, una volta cresciuti, possono rimanere in compagnia della femmina fino al momento di migrare per l'Africa.

Nei siti indisturbati il successo della nidificazione è elevato, dell'80-90%, ma esso diminuisce alquanto nei prati trattati con fertilizzanti e nei terreni soggetti ad aratura. Il come e il quando viene effettuata la fienagione sono di importanza cruciale; le macchine agricole possono uccidere il 38-95% dei pulcini di un determinato sito: queste perdite riguardano il 50% dei pulcini della prima covata e poco meno del 40% di quelli della seconda[11]. L'influsso del clima sulla sopravvivenza dei piccoli è limitato: dal momento che si sviluppano piuttosto velocemente, in periodi asciutti o caldi, le perdite dovute al clima sono relativamente poche. Diversamente da molte altre specie in cui i pulcini sono precoci, i pulcini vengono nutriti dalla madre fino a quando non raggiungono l'indipendenza, e questo può essere loro di aiuto quando la situazione peggiora. Più che dal tempo, la sopravvivenza dei pulcini è influenzata soprattutto dal numero dei componenti della covata: infatti, il tasso di sopravvivenza diminuisce nelle nidiate troppo numerose[31]. Il tasso di sopravvivenza annuale negli adulti è inferiore al 30%[30][32], ma alcuni esemplari possono vivere fino a 5-7 anni[33].

Predatori e parassiti

large black and white stork
La cicogna bianca può uccidere i pulcini rimasti esposti dalle falciature anticipate.

Tra i predatori del re di quaglie nei suoi siti di nidificazione ricordiamo gatti selvatici e domestici, visoni americani (introdotti dall'uomo), furetti selvatici, lontre, volpi rosse e vari uccelli, come poiane e cornacchie grigie[11]. In Lituania, anche il cane procione, introdotto lì dall'uomo, dà la caccia al re di quaglie. Quando, dopo la falciatura, i pulcini rimangono esposti, possono cadere vittima di grossi uccelli, come cicogne bianche, albanelle e altri rapaci, gabbiani e Corvidi[34]. Nei siti indisturbati, i nidi e i nidiacei vengono attaccati di rado, così come dimostra il maggiore successo riproduttivo riscontrato in tali aree. Una volta, durante la migrazione, un esemplare è stato assalito e ucciso da un astore nero[11].

Tra i parassiti che attaccano il re di quaglie ricordiamo il largamente diffuso trematode Prosthogonimus ovatus (che vive negli ovidotti degli uccelli)[35], il verme parassita Plagiorchis elegans[36], le larve delle mosche parassite[37] e le zecche dure dei generi Haemaphysalis e Ixodes[38].

Durante il programma di reintroduzione del re di quaglie in Inghilterra, nella stagione di nidificazione del 2003, i batteri patogeni del genere Campylobacter causarono enteriti e altri disturbi negli esemplari precedentemente rilasciati in natura. In seguito, vennero effettuate analisi microbiologiche per localizzare gli esemplari infetti e scoprire da dove provenivano i batteri[39].

Conservazione

Fino al 2010, malgrado occupasse un areale di nidificazione esteso per 12.400.000 km², il re di quaglie veniva classificato, sulla Lista Rossa dell'IUCN, tra le «specie prossime alla minaccia», a causa della diminuzione della popolazione europea, ma un monitoraggio effettuato in Russia e Kazakistan ha dimostrato che in tale zona il numero di esemplari era rimasto stabile o addirittura aumentato. Attualmente, quindi, viene classificata come «specie a rischio minimo», dal momento che le popolazioni più numerose, quelle di Russia e Kazakistan, non sembrano affatto minacciate. La popolazione di re di quaglie viene stimata in Europa su 1,3-2 milioni di coppie riproduttrici, tre-quarti dei quali nella sola Russia europea, alle quali vanno sommate altre 515.000-1.240.000 coppie presenti nella Russia asiatica; la popolazione totale viene stimata sui 5,45-9,72 milioni di esemplari. In gran parte della regione occidentale dell'areale di nidificazione, il numero dei re di quaglie è notevolmente diminuito, e il declino continua tuttora, sebbene i programmi di conservazione abbiano consentito il suo recupero in alcuni Paesi, come in Finlandia, dove la popolazione è quintuplicata, e nel Regno Unito, dove è raddoppiata[1]. Nei Paesi Bassi, nel 1996, vi erano 33 siti di nidificazione, saliti ad almeno 500 già nel 1998[40].

La popolazione riproduttiva iniziò a diminuire nel XIX secolo, ma tale processo si è particolarmente intensificato dopo la seconda guerra mondiale[41]. In gran parte dell'Europa la causa principale di questo declino è stata la perdita di nidi e pulcini dovuta all'anticipazione della falciatura del fieno. Nel secolo scorso il periodo della fienagione si è anticipato sempre più, a causa dello sviluppo di colture dalla crescita più rapida, reso possibile dalle bonifiche e dall'impiego di fertilizzanti, nonché dalla sostituzione dei metodi di raccolta tradizionali con le falci all'impiego di falciatrici meccaniche, prima trainate dai cavalli, poi dai trattori. La meccanizzazione ha permesso anche di operare più velocemente su vaste aree, in modo tale che le coppie che perdono la prima covata non riescono a trovare un sito alternativo per deporne una seconda[34]. Anche la tecnica principale con cui viene effettuata la fienagione, in modo circolare dall'esterno del campo verso il centro, offre poche possibilità di fuga ai pulcini, che rimangono così esposti all'attacco di potenziali predatori. Gli adulti sono in grado di fuggire dalle falciatrici, ma durante la cova alcune femmine non si allontanano dal nido, con risultati fatali[11].

page of recipe book
La ricetta di Mrs. Beeton.

Un altro fattore di minaccia per il re di quaglie è costituito dalla distruzione dell'habitat, dal momento che i campi bonificati e trattati con concimi chimici sono meno idonei alla nidificazione dei campi di fieno tradizionali. Nell'Europa occidentale la conversione delle praterie in terreni agricoli è stata facilitata da sussidi statali, mentre in quella orientale il crollo dell'agricoltura collettiva ha portato all'abbandono di terreni agricoli, in un'area considerata importante per la nidificazione della specie[34]. Altre minacce più localizzate sono le inondazioni primaverili[42] e il disturbo causato da strade o parchi eolici[34]. Le carni di questo uccello sono buone da mangiare; quando esso era comune in Inghilterra, Mrs. Beeton raccomandava di arrostirne quattro su uno spiedo[43]. Un impatto più significativo della caccia diretta lo hanno le catture indirette di molti esemplari, fino a 14.000 all'anno, in Egitto, dove gli esemplari migratori rimangono intrappolati nelle reti posizionate per le quaglie, assieme alle quali sono spesso in compagnia durante la migrazione[12]. Anche se con questo tipo di caccia va perduto lo 0,5-2,7% della popolazione europea, le perdite registrate sono inferiori rispetto a quando le specie oggetto di caccia erano più numerose e prevedibili[44].

La maggior parte dei Paesi europei ha preso provvedimenti per garantire la sopravvivenza al re di quaglie e migliorare la gestione delle risorse naturali; è all'opera anche un apposito piano d'azione al quale collaborano Paesi di tutta Europa. Obiettivo dei programmi di conservazione è monitorare le popolazioni e la loro ecologia e garantire loro la sopravvivenza, soprattutto attraverso la variazione dei periodi di raccolta del fieno e delle tecniche con la quale viene praticata[1]. Fienagioni eseguite più tardi consentono alla specie di nidificare con tranquillità, mentre lasciare strisce di fieno indisturbate ai margini dei campi e procedere al taglio dal centro verso l'esterno diminuisce il rischio di mortalità[11]. Il declino della popolazione si arresterà se tali misure verranno applicate su una scala sufficientemente grande[45]. Anche la diminuzione degli abbattimenti illegali e la messa in atto di efficienti misure di protezione nei Paesi dove la caccia è ancora permessa potrebbero fare molto per favorire la specie[1]. Programmi di reintroduzione sono stati effettuati in Inghilterra, e in molti altri Paesi i siti di nidificazione vengono attentamente monitorati[46]. Nei casi in cui i siti di nidificazione incidono sulle aree urbane, vi sono implicazioni di costo, stimate in uno studio effettuato in Germania a diversi milioni di euro per esemplare[47]. Nei siti di svernamento, invece, il re di quaglie non è affatto minacciato, anzi, può trarre beneficio dai processi di deforestazione, che creano habitat più aperti[24].

Note

  1. ^ a b c d e (EN) BirdLife International 2012, Crex crex, su IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Versione 2020.2, IUCN, 2020.
  2. ^ definizione di gallinella sul dizionario di Repubblica, su dizionari.repubblica.it.
  3. ^ a b (EN) Gill F. and Donsker D. (eds), Family Rallidae, in IOC World Bird Names (ver 9.2), International Ornithologists’ Union, 2019. URL consultato il 12 maggio 2014.
  4. ^ Taylor & van Perlo (2000) p. 30
  5. ^ Livezey (1998) p. 2098
  6. ^ (LA) Carolus Linnaeus, Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata, vol. 1, Holmiae (Stockholm), Laurentii Salvii, 1758, p. 153.
  7. ^ (DE) Johann Matthäus Bechstein, Ornithologisches Taschenbuch von und für Deutschland oder kurze Beschreibung aller Vogel Deutschlands, vol 2, Leipzig, Richter, 1803, p. 336.
  8. ^ Philip Lutley Sclater, Remarks on the divergencies between the "Rules for naming Animals" of the German Zoological Society and the Stricklandian Code of Nomenclature, in Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, vol. 54, n. 2, 1896, pp. 306–319.
  9. ^ John George Wood, The Illustrated Natural History, Londra, G Routledge, 1855, p. 302.
  10. ^ John Maynard Smith e David Harper, Animal Signals, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 11, ISBN 0-19-852685-7.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Taylor & van Perlo (2000) pp. 320–327
  12. ^ a b c d Mark Cocker e Richard Mabey, Birds Britannica, Londra, Chatto & Windus, 2005, pp. 178–180, ISBN 0-7011-6907-9.
  13. ^ Tomasz S Osiejuk e Bogumia Olech, Amplitude spectra of Corncrake calls: what do they signalise?, in Animal Biology, vol. 54, n. 2, 2004, pp. 207–220, DOI:10.1163/1570756041445218.
  14. ^ Richard Ottvall, Female Corncrake (Crex crex) singing in the wild (PDF), in Journal of Ornithology, vol. 140, n. 4, 1999, pp. 453–456, DOI:10.1007/BF01650989 (archiviato dall'url originale il 25 marzo 2012).
  15. ^ Colin J Bibby, Burgess, Neil D; Hill, David A; Mustoe, Simon; Lambton, Sandra, Bird Census Techniques, Kidlington, Oxfordshire, Academic Press, 2000, p. 180, ISBN =978-0-12-095831-3.
  16. ^ Anne V Hudson, Stowe, Tim J; Aspinall, Simon J, Status and distribution of Corncrakes in Britain in 1988, in British Birds, vol. 83, n. 5, 1990, pp. 173–187.
  17. ^ T M Peake, McGregor, P K, Corncrake Crex crex census estimates: a conservation application of vocal individuality (PDF), in Animal Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 24, n. 1, 2001, pp. 81–90.
  18. ^ Kenneth Newman, Newman's Birds of Southern Africa, Cape Town, Struik, 2002, pp. 120–122, ISBN 1-86872-735-1.
  19. ^ a b Rhys E Green, Rocamora, Gerard; Schäffer, Norbert, Populations, ecology and threats to the Corncrake Crex crex in Europe (PDF), in Vogelwelt, vol. 118, 1997, pp. 117–134 (archiviato dall'url originale il 12 gennaio 2012).
  20. ^ a b c d Axel Bräunlich e Michael Rank, Notes on the occurrence of the Corncrake (Crex crex) in Asia and in the Pacific region (PDF), a cura di N Schäffer e U Mammen, Proceedings International Corncrake Workshop 1998, Hilpoltstein, Germany, 2001, pp. 10–13 (archiviato dall'url originale il 12 gennaio 2012).
  21. ^ a b c d e David Snow, Perrins, Christopher M (editors), The Birds of the Western Palearctic concise edition: vol 1, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1998, pp. 496–499, ISBN 0-19-854099-X.
  22. ^ Adrian Skerrett, Betts, Michael; Bullock, Ian; Fisher, David; Gerlach, Ron; Lucking, Rob; Phillips, John; Scott, Bob, Third report of the Seychelles Bird Records Committee, in Bulletin of the African Bird Club, vol. 13, n. 1, 2006, pp. 65–72.
  23. ^ W P R Bourne, The breeding birds of Bermuda, in Ibis, vol. 99, n. 1, 1957, pp. 94–105, DOI:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1957.tb01935.x.
  24. ^ a b Taylor & van Perlo (2000) pp. 316–320
  25. ^ Debbie Pain, Green, Rhys; Clark, Nigel, On the edge; can the Spoon-billed Sandpiper be saved?, in British Birds, vol. 104, n. 7, 2011, pp. 350–363.
  26. ^ Witmer Stone, Collinge on the Corn-crake (PDF), in The Auk, vol. 49, n. 1, 1932, pp. 126–127. URL consultato il 17 agosto 2012 (archiviato dall'url originale il 10 settembre 2012).
  27. ^ Taylor & van Perlo (2000) pp. 39–41
  28. ^ Henry; edited posthumously by Richard Bowdler Sharpe Seebohm, Coloured Figures of the Eggs of British Birds, Sheffield, Pawson & Brailsford, 1896, p. 83.
  29. ^ Jamie Graham, Corn Crake pair-bonding and nesting behaviour, in British Birds, vol. 102, n. 4, 2009, p. 217.
  30. ^ a b Corncrake Crex crex (Linnaeus, 1758), su BTOWeb BirdFacts, British Trust for Ornithology. URL consultato il 12 giugno 2011.
  31. ^ G A Tyler, Green, Rhys E, Effects of weather on the survival and growth of Corncrake Crex crex chicks (PDF) , in Ibis, vol. 146, n. 1, 2004, pp. 69–76, DOI:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2004.00225.x.
  32. ^ Rhys E Green, A new method for estimating the adult survival rate of the Corncrake Crex crex and comparison with estimates from ring-recovery and ring-recapture data (PDF), in Ibis, vol. 146, n. 3, 2004, pp. 501–508, DOI:10.1111/j.1474-919x.2004.00291.x.
  33. ^ Rob Hume, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, RSPB Complete Birds of Britain and Europe, Londra, Dorling Kindersley, 2009, p. 264, ISBN 1-4053-4589-6.
  34. ^ a b c d Koffijberg & Schaffer (2006) p. 21
  35. ^ Rothschild, Miriam; Clay, Theresa, Fleas, Flukes and Cuckoos. A Study of Bird Parasites, Londra, Collins, 1953, pp. 204–205.
  36. ^ Hikmet S Yildirimhan, Bursey Charles R; Altunel, F Naci, Helminth parasites of the Balkan green lizard, Lacerta trilineata Bedriaga 1886, from Bursa, Turkey (PDF), in Turkish Journal of Zoology, vol. 35, n. 3, 2011, pp. 1–17, DOI:10.3906/zoo-0910-1. URL consultato il 17 agosto 2012 (archiviato dall'url originale il 19 agosto 2018).
  37. ^ V Matyukhin, Krivosheina, M G, Contribution to the knowledge of Diptera (Insecta) parasitizing on birds, in Entomological Review, vol. 88, n. 2, 2008, pp. 258–259, DOI:10.1134/S0013873808020115.
  38. ^ Harry Hoogstraal, Traylor, Melvin A; Gaber, Sobhy; Malakatis, George; Guindy, Ezzat; Helmy, Ibrahim, Ticks (Ixodidae) on migrating birds in Egypt, spring and fall 1962, in Bulletin of the World Health Organisation, vol. 30, n. 3, 1964, pp. 355–367, PMC 2554818, PMID 14163959.
  39. ^ N Mudenda, Sainsbury, A W; Macgregor, S K; Flach, E J; Owen, R J, Prevalence of Campylobacter species in corncrakes (Crex crex) in a reintroduction programme in the UK, in Veterinary Record, vol. 163, n. 9, 2008, pp. 274–275, DOI:10.1136/vr.163.9.274, PMID 18757906.
  40. ^ Arnoud B van den Berg, European news 45, in British Birds, vol. 92, n. 6, 1999, pp. 278–300.
  41. ^ Koffijberg & Schaffer (2006) p. 6
  42. ^ A Donaghy, Corncrakes: a lot done, more to do, in Wings, vol. 46, 2007, pp. 26–27.
  43. ^ Isabella Beeton, The Book of Household Management, Londra, S O Beeton, 1861, p. 210.
  44. ^ Ian Newton, Bird Migration (Collins New Naturalist Library 113), Londra, Collins, 2010, p. 532, ISBN 0-00-730732-2.
  45. ^ Rhys E Green, Tyler, G A; Stowe, T J; Newton A V, A simulation model of the effect of mowing of agricultural grassland on the breeding success of the corncrake (Crex crex), in Journal of Zoology, vol. 243, n. 1, 1997, pp. 81–115, DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1997.tb05758.x.
  46. ^ Peter Holden, Cleeves, Tim, RSPB Handbook of British Birds, Robertsbridge, East Sussex, Christopher Helm, 2010, p. 110, ISBN =1-4081-2735-0.
  47. ^ Jan Marcus Matauschek, The impact of endangered species law on the real estate development process explored with cost-benefit analysis: The case of the corncrake in Hamburg/Germany (PDF), in German Working Papers in Law and Economics, vol. 2005, Paper 7, 2005, pp. 1–30.

Bibliografia

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Crex: Brief Summary ( Italian )

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Il re di quaglie o gallinella terrestre (Crex crex (Linnaeus, 1758)), unica specie del genere Crex Bechstein, 1803, è un uccello della famiglia dei Rallidi originario dell'Eurasia centrale e occidentale.

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Griezes ( Latvian )

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Griezes (Crex) ir neliela dumbrvistiņu dzimtas (Rallidae) ģints, kas apvieno 2 sugas, kas izplatītas Vecajā pasaulē. Abas sugas sastopamas Āfrikā, bet grieze (Crex crex), kas Āfrikā ziemo, ligzdo Eiropā un Āzijā. Latvijā tā ir parasta ligzdotāja visā teritorijā lauksaimniecības ainavā.[1]

Izskats

 src=
Āfrikas grieze (Crex egregia) ir mazākā ģintī

No abām sugām lielākā ir grieze, kuras ķermeņa garums var sasniegt 30 cm,[2] bet Āfrikas griezes ķermeņa garums ir 23 cm.[3] Abām ķermeņa apspalvojums uz muguras ir tumši brūns, bet uz vēdera gaiši pelēkbrūns. To kājas ir garas, bet knābji īsi. Atšķirībā no citām dumbrvistiņu dzimtas sugām abas griežu sugas priekšroku dod sausai pļavai, nevis mitrājam. Eiropas grieze pamatā dzīvo siena pļavās, bet Āfrikas grieze savannā.

Īpašības

Abas griežu sugas ir ļoti skaļas. Tām ir specifisks, viegli atpazīstams, griezošas skaņas sauciens, ar kuru tās paziņo par sevi un savu teritoriju, īpaši bieži šo saucienu var dzirdēt krēslas stundās. Tomēr griezes ir skaļas tikai ligzdošanas laikā.

Tās kopumā ir aktīvas gaišajā dienas laikā, bet migrācijas ceļojumus griezes veic nakts laikā. Meklējot barību, griezes staigā lēni, augstu cilājot kājas, bet iztraucētas, ātri skrienot cauri zālei, paslēpjas. Tās ir visēdājas, kuru galvenā barība ir uz zemes virsmas dzīvojoši bezmugurkaulnieki. Ligzdai ir sekla, kausveida forma un tā ir vīta no sausas zāles tieši uz zemes labi paslēptā vietā. Pēc izšķilšanās mazuļi uzreiz pamet ligzdu un spēj lidot pēc 4 - 6 nedēļām.

Sistemātika

Griežu ģints (Crex)

Atsauces

  1. «Ornitofaunistika: Grieze Crex crex». Arhivēts no oriģināla, laiks: 2013. gada 31. jūlijā. Skatīts: 2013. gada 13. decembrī.
  2. «ARKive: Corncrake (Crex crex)». Arhivēts no oriģināla, laiks: 2014. gada 3. martā. Skatīts: 2013. gada 12. decembrī.
  3. African Crake Crex egregia - Râle des prés

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Griezes: Brief Summary ( Latvian )

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Griezes (Crex) ir neliela dumbrvistiņu dzimtas (Rallidae) ģints, kas apvieno 2 sugas, kas izplatītas Vecajā pasaulē. Abas sugas sastopamas Āfrikā, bet grieze (Crex crex), kas Āfrikā ziemo, ligzdo Eiropā un Āzijā. Latvijā tā ir parasta ligzdotāja visā teritorijā lauksaimniecības ainavā.

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Crex ( Dutch; Flemish )

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Vogels

Crex is een geslacht van vogels uit de familie rallen, koeten en waterhoentjes (Rallidae). Het geslacht telt 2 soorten.[1]

Soorten

Bronnen, noten en/of referenties
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Crex: Brief Summary ( Dutch; Flemish )

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Crex is een geslacht van vogels uit de familie rallen, koeten en waterhoentjes (Rallidae). Het geslacht telt 2 soorten.

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Crex ( Polish )

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Crex – rodzaj ptaka z rodziny chruścieli (Rallidae).

Zasięg występowania

Rodzaj obejmuje gatunki występujące w Afryce i Eurazji[3].

Morfologia

Długość ciała 20–30 cm; masa ciała 92–210 g; rozpiętość skrzydeł 40–53 cm[4].

Systematyka

Etymologia

Epitet gatunkowy Rallus crex Linnaeus, 1758 (gr. κρεξ krex, κρεκος krekos – długonogi ptak wymieniony przez Herodota, Arystofanesa, Arystotelesa i innych autorów, do tej pory utożsamiany z szeroką gamą ptaków, w tym z derkaczem (przy założeniu, że nazwa jest dźwiękonaśladowcza))[5].

Podział systematyczny

Do rodzaju należą następujące gatunki[6]:

Przypisy

  1. Crex, w: Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ang.).
  2. J.M. Bechstein: Ornithologisches Taschenbuch von und für Deutschland, oder, Kurze Beschreibung aller Vögel Deutschlands für Liebhaber dieses Theils der Naturgeschichte. Leipzig: Carl Friedrich Enoch Richter, 1803, s. 336. (niem.)
  3. F. Gill, D. Donsker (red.): Rails, gallinules & cranes (ang.). IOC World Bird List: Version 6.3. [dostęp 2016-09-11].
  4. P.B. Taylor: Family Rallidae (Rails, Gallinules and Coots). W: J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, J. Sargatal: Handbook of the Birds of the World. Cz. 3: Hoatzin to Auks. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, 1996, s. 173–174. ISBN 84-87334-20-2. (ang.)
  5. J.A. Jobling: Key to Scientific Names in Ornithology. W: J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, J. Sargatal, D.A. Christie, E. de Juana (red.): Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, 2016. [dostęp 2016-09-11]. (ang.)
  6. Systematyka i nazwy polskie za: P. Mielczarek, M. Kuziemko: Rodzina: Rallidae Rafinesque, 1815 - chruściele - Rails and Coots (wersja: 2016-07-28). W: Kompletna lista ptaków świata [on-line]. Instytut Nauk o Środowisku Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. [dostęp 2016-09-11].
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Crex: Brief Summary ( Polish )

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Crex – rodzaj ptaka z rodziny chruścieli (Rallidae).

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Crex ( Portuguese )

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Crex é um gênero de aves da família Rallidae.

As seguintes espécies são reconhecidas:[1]

Referências

  1. GILL, F.; DONSKER, D. (Eds.) (2013). «Bustards, rails & allies». IOC World Bird List (v.3.4). Consultado em 7 de setembro de 2013
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Crex: Brief Summary ( Portuguese )

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Crex é um gênero de aves da família Rallidae.

As seguintes espécies são reconhecidas:

Crex egregia (Peters, W, 1854) Crex crex (Linnaeus, 1758)
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Kornknarrar ( Swedish )

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Kornknarrar (Crex) är ett fågelsläkte i familjen rallar inom ordningen tran- och rallfåglar som förekommer i Europa, delar av norra Asien och Afrika.[1] Släktet har omväxlande omfattat antingen enbart kornknarren (Crex crex) eller även afrikansk kornknarr (Crex egregia), ibland istället placerad i det egna släktet Crecopsis. Numera är det senare alternativet konsensus bland ledande taxonomiska auktoriteter.

Referenser

  1. ^ Clements, J. F., T. S. Schulenberg, M. J. Iliff, D. Roberson, T. A. Fredericks, B. L. Sullivan, and C. L. Wood (2016) The eBird/Clements checklist of birds of the world: Version 2016 http://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/download, läst 2016-08-11

Externa länkar

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Kornknarrar: Brief Summary ( Swedish )

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Kornknarrar (Crex) är ett fågelsläkte i familjen rallar inom ordningen tran- och rallfåglar som förekommer i Europa, delar av norra Asien och Afrika. Släktet har omväxlande omfattat antingen enbart kornknarren (Crex crex) eller även afrikansk kornknarr (Crex egregia), ibland istället placerad i det egna släktet Crecopsis. Numera är det senare alternativet konsensus bland ledande taxonomiska auktoriteter.

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Crex ( Vietnamese )

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Crex là một chi chim trong họ Rallidae.[2] Chi này bao gồm hai loài, gà nước ngô, C. crex, sinh sản trên khắp châu Âu và châu Á và trú đông ở miền nam châu Phi, và gà nước châu Phi, C. egregia, di cư trong châu Phi. Cả hai loài đều có mỏ ngắn với phần lưng nâu đen, dưới bụng chủ yếu là màu xám xanh dương, và có dải màu trên hai cánh. Loài gà nước ngô lớn hơn tương đối so với loài châu Phi, và có một mảng màu hạt dẻ nổi bật trên cánh của nó. Bất thường cho loài trong họ gà nước, đây là 2 loài chim sinh sống ở môi trường sống khô hơn là vùng đất ngập nước; các loài Á-Âu chủ yếu là sinh sản trong đồng cỏ hay, và gà nước châu Phi trong đồng cỏ khô. Loài gà nước châu Phi thỉnh thoảng được tách thành chi riêng của nó, Crecopsis, nhưng nay thường được đặt trong chi crex.

Các loài

Hình ảnh

Chú thích

  1. ^ Bechstein, Johann Matthäus (1803). Ornithologisches Taschenbuch von und für Deutschland oder kurze Beschreibung aller Vogel Deutschlands, vol 2 (bằng tiếng Đức). Leipzig: Richter. tr. 336. Bảo trì CS1: Ngôn ngữ không rõ (link)
  2. ^ Clements, J. F., T. S. Schulenberg, M. J. Iliff, B.L. Sullivan, C. L. Wood, and D. Roberson (2012). “The eBird/Clements checklist of birds of the world: Version 6.7.”. Truy cập ngày 19 tháng 12 năm 2012.

Tham khảo

 src= Wikispecies có thông tin sinh học về Crex  src= Wikimedia Commons có thư viện hình ảnh và phương tiện truyền tải về Crex


Hình tượng sơ khai Bài viết sơ khai Bộ Sếu này vẫn còn sơ khai. Bạn có thể giúp Wikipedia bằng cách mở rộng nội dung để bài được hoàn chỉnh hơn.
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Crex: Brief Summary ( Vietnamese )

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Crex là một chi chim trong họ Rallidae. Chi này bao gồm hai loài, gà nước ngô, C. crex, sinh sản trên khắp châu Âu và châu Á và trú đông ở miền nam châu Phi, và gà nước châu Phi, C. egregia, di cư trong châu Phi. Cả hai loài đều có mỏ ngắn với phần lưng nâu đen, dưới bụng chủ yếu là màu xám xanh dương, và có dải màu trên hai cánh. Loài gà nước ngô lớn hơn tương đối so với loài châu Phi, và có một mảng màu hạt dẻ nổi bật trên cánh của nó. Bất thường cho loài trong họ gà nước, đây là 2 loài chim sinh sống ở môi trường sống khô hơn là vùng đất ngập nước; các loài Á-Âu chủ yếu là sinh sản trong đồng cỏ hay, và gà nước châu Phi trong đồng cỏ khô. Loài gà nước châu Phi thỉnh thoảng được tách thành chi riêng của nó, Crecopsis, nhưng nay thường được đặt trong chi crex.

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Коростели ( Russian )

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Царство: Животные
Подцарство: Эуметазои
Без ранга: Вторичноротые
Подтип: Позвоночные
Инфратип: Челюстноротые
Надкласс: Четвероногие
Класс: Птицы
Подкласс: Настоящие птицы
Инфракласс: Новонёбные
Семейство: Пастушковые
Подсемейство: Rallinae
Род: Коростели
Международное научное название

Crex (Peters, 1854)

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ITIS 176276NCBI 185585EOL 43259FW 369009

Коростели[1] (лат. Crex) — род птиц из семейства пастушковых. В настоящее время включает в себя два вида: коростеля и африканского коростеля. Первый из этих двух видов гнездится в Евразии и зимует в Юго-Восточной Африке, второй распространён исключительно на африканском континенте к югу от Сахары.

Систематика

В «Системе природы» Карла Линнея (обыкновенный) коростель под названием Rallus crex был помещён в одну группу вместе с водяным пастушком, цветным бекасом (Rostratula benghalensis) и каролинским погонышем (Porzana carolina) [2]. В 1803 году немецкий натуралист Иоганн Бехштейн указал на явные морфологические особенности этой птицы и вынес её в обособленный род Crex[3].

Другой вид рода — африканский коростель — был описан в 1854 году Вильгельмом Петерсом под названием Ortygometra egregria. Систематическое положение этого таксона также менялось: часть специалистов относили его к монотипному роду Crecopsis, другая классифицировала в составе рода Porzana, подчёркивая внешнее сходство с южно-американским пепельногорлым погонышем (Porzana albicollis)[4][5][6]. В настоящее время большинство орнитологов оба вида включают в один род, указывая на их близкое генетическое родство. Положение пепельногорлого погоныша остаётся под вопросом, в отдельных публикациях его также причисляют к роду Crex[7].

Ближайшей родственной группой коростелей считаются погоныши (Porzana)[7]. Семейство пастушковые, к которым относятся коростели, объединяет около 150 видов, большинство из которых ведут водный или околоводный образ жизни. Большинство птиц этого семейства и его наиболее примитивные формы обитают в тропиках Старого Света, что говорит в пользу теории о происхождении и диверсификации семейства именно в этой области. Однако ни имеющиеся палеонтологические находки, ни молекулярные данные не дают однозначного ответа на этот вопрос[8].

Описание

Внешний вид

Оба современных вида коростелей — относительно небольшого размера птицы с сжатым по бокам туловищем, короткими крыльями, коротким хвостом и конусообразным коротким клювом. В окраске сверху доминируют чёрные и рыжие тона, на шее и груди голубовато-серые. Брюхо белое, бока и подхвостье полосатые. Обыкновенный коростель заметно крупнее — его длина 27—30 см, размах крыльев 42—53 см. Аналогичные показатели африканского коростеля 20—23 см и размах крыльев 40—42 см соответственно. На юго-востоке Африки, где зимой пересекаются оба вида, первый выделяется не только более крупными размерами, но также светлее окрашенным верхом, каштанового цвета пятнами на крыльях и отличным рисунком оперения снизу. У летящего коростеля крылья более вытянуты и заострённые, взмахи крыльев не такие глубокие, по переднему краю крыла заметно белое поле[9][10].

Самцы и самки в целом похожи друг на друга, хотя последние несколько мельче, окрашены в менее контрастные тона. Молодые птицы обоих полов выглядят темнее и в сравнении со взрослыми самками ещё невзрачнее, более бурые снизу. Линька один раз в год по окончании брачного периода. Оба вида монотипичны, хотя для обыкновенного коростеля характерна географическая изменчивость окраски, признанная клинальной (плавной, не имеющей чётких границ)[9][10].

Коростели заметно отличаются от других пастушковых. Другие близкие короткоклювые виды заметно уступают им в размерах, имеют характерные белые отметины сверху и отличный перьевой рисунок снизу. Водяной и капский пастушки выделяются длинными заострёнными клювами[9][10].

Голос

Как и другие представители семейства, коростели способны издавать разнообразные звуки, из которых наиболее известны территориальные крики самцов. Помечая территорию и подзывая самок, они издают серию резких и скрипучих звуков, которые могут продолжаться непрерывно в течение нескольких минут. Во время пения самец держит туловище прямо, высоко поднимает голову и широко раскрывает клюв. В период размножения голосовая активность возрастает, при этом обыкновенный коростель голосит в основном в тёмное время суток, в то время как африканский — в светлое[9][10]. Пик голосовой активности евразийского вида приходится на промежуток между полночью и тремя часами утра, общее количество издаваемых за ночь звуков может достигать 20 тыс.[11].

Территориальная вокализация заметно отличается от вокализации других птиц в пределах ареала, в частности от звуков, издаваемых обыкновенным и полосатым погонышами, погонышей-крошкой[12] и водяным пастушком[13]. Зимующий в Африке обыкновенный коростель в этот период жизни ведёт себя бесшумно, и соответственно на «чёрном» континенте пение свойственно лишь для его африканского визави[14]. Птицы обоего пола издают другой характерный звук, который может сигнализировать как об опасности, так и мечения территории, особенно в конфликтной ситуации с соседями. Самки и птенцы общаются с помощью крякающих и пискливых звуков[9][10]. Охотники для привлечения птиц используют манки, которые имитируют территориальную активность самцов. В книге «Birds Britannica» приводится пример простого манка для коростеля: деревянной гребёнки, по которой скребут палочкой или щепкой. Вместо гребёнки можно использовать застёжку-молнию, по которой проводить пластиковой картой[11].

Распространение

Обыкновенный коростель гнездится в умеренных широтах Евразии от Британских островов и Пиренеев в востоку до Прибайкалья и западного Китая[15][16], зимует в юго-восточной Африке от Заира и Танзании к югу до южно-африканской провинции Квазулу-Натал и бывшей провинции Трансвааль[10]. Небольшие группы птиц останавливаются на зимовку в Южной Европе и Северной Африке[17].

Африканский коростель распространён почти повсеместно к югу от Сахары, за исключением пустынных и полупустынных районов в юго-западной части континента, где годовое количество осадков не превышает 300 мм, а также на Мадагаскаре[4]. Местами это обычная птица, но редкая во влажных тропических лесах и засушливых регионах с участками оголённой почвы. Если обыкновенный коростель — типичная перелётная птица, то африканский мигрирует только из районов с ярко-выраженным сезонным колебанием влажности, в основном расположенных в южной части ареала[9][18]. Оба вида летят в тёмное время суток, что затрудняет наблюдение и учёт за ними. Особенно это относится к африканскому виду, чей характер перемещений остаётся слабо изученным, несмотря на распространённость[9].

Образ жизни

Оба вида коростелей активны днём, особенно утром и вечером, а также в ненастную погоду. Африканский вид в сравнении с евразийским ведёт себя менее скрытно, чаще выглядывает из высокой травы и выбегает на открытую местность; его нередко можно встретить у дорожной обочины. Обыкновенного коростеля в дикой природе увидеть весьма проблематично: он, как правило, проводит время в зарослях густой травы и о его присутствии можно догадаться лишь по голосу. Коростели территориальны в течение всего года, конфликтующие самцы принимают угрожающую позу — принимают вертикальную стойку и взъерошивают перья на крыльях, брюхе и боках. На границах участков между самцами возможны стычки[9][10].

При ходьбе птицы высоко поднимают ноги, во время бега держат туловище вытянутым горизонтально и поджав бока. Потревоженные коростели предпочитают спастись бегством, прячась под покровом высокой травы. Взлетают неохотно, в воздухе держатся неуклюже, развесив ноги, и плюхаются в траву при первой возможности. Как правило, не отлетают далее 50 м от места взлёта. Спасаясь от собаки, используют быстроту и манёвренность, при этом как можно ниже прижимаются к земле и часто меняя направление движения. Обыкновенный коростель мигрирует стаями до 40 особей, часто смешанными с перепелами. Летит ночью, а днём отдыхает в излюбленных местах отдыха. На традиционных стоянках могут одновременно концентрироваться до нескольких сотен птиц[9][10]. Способность к миграции врождённая: птицы не утрачивали способности к ней после нескольких поколений, выращенных в неволе[19].

Размножение

Коростели традиционно считаются моногамными птицами, однако наблюдения показывают, что самец обыкновенного коростеля после оплодотворения самки и начала кладки яиц может сменить участок и спариваться с уже другой самкой (последовательная полигиния). В брачный период характерно преследование самки самцом, во время которого первая кудахчет, а второй бежит с выпрямленным телом и вытянутой шеей. Гнездо — неглубокая чаша из переплетённых травинок, расположенная в углублении в густой траве. Яйца розоватого цвета с красновато-бурыми или лиловыми пятнами, числом 3—11 штук у африканского вида и 6—14 (чаще 8—12) у евразийского. Нередко первое яйцо появляется тогда, когда гнездо ещё не готово и представляет собой простую травяную подстилку. Каждое последующее яйцо откладывается через сутки после предыдущего и к концу кладки постройка принимает более внушительные размеры.

Насиживание, в котором принимают участие обе птицы пары, начинается примерно через две недели после кладки первого яйца. Несмотря на значительную разницу во времени между кладкой первого и последнего яйца, все птенцы появляются на свет в пределах двух суток. Они с самого рождения покрыты чёрным пухом и быстро покидают гнездо, однако первые дни неспособны самостоятельно добывать себе корм. Способность к полёту проявляется в возрасте 4—6 недель, ещё до достижения размеров взрослых птиц. Сведения о повторной кладке известны только для обыкновенного коростеля[10].

Питание

Рацион состоит в основном из животных кормов, главным образом беспозвоночных: земляных червей, улиток, пауков, жуков, стрекоз, кузнечиков и других насекомых. В Африке частой добычей птиц становятся термиты, тараканы и навозные жуки. Время от времени ловят мелких лягушек, грызунов и рыбу. Корм подбирают с земли и с побегов низко растущих растений. Самцы могут преследовать добычу или исследовать клювом растительный мусор. В желудках птиц иногда находят пищу растительного происхождения: семена трав и молодые побеги. Для перетирания пищи в желудке глотают мелкие камешки. Кормятся в одиночку, парами или семейными группами, иногда в компании с другими пастушковыми, дупелями и перепелами[9][10].

Примечания

  1. Бёме Р. Л., Флинт В. Е. Пятиязычный словарь названий животных. Птицы. Латинский, русский, английский, немецкий, французский / Под общ. ред. акад. В. Е. Соколова. — М.: Рус. яз., «РУССО», 1994. — С. 70. — 2030 экз.ISBN 5-200-00643-0.
  2. Linnaeus, 1758, p. 153.
  3. Bechstein, 1803, p. 336.
  4. 1 2 Taylor, 1996, p. 173.
  5. Taylor & van Perlo, 2000, p. 30.
  6. Livezey, 1998, p. 2098, 2134.
  7. 1 2 Livezey, 1998, p. 2134.
  8. García–R et al., 2014.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Taylor & van Perlo, 2000, p. 316—320.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Taylor & van Perlo, 2000, p. 320—327.
  11. 1 2 Cocker & Mabey, 2005, p. 178—180.
  12. Newman, 2002, p. 120—122.
  13. Taylor & van Perlo, 2000, p. 293—299.
  14. Serle & Morel, 1999, p. 60.
  15. Степанян, 2003, с. 162.
  16. Птицы СССР, 1987, с. 347.
  17. Snow & Perrins, 1998, p. 496—499.
  18. Hudson & Bouwman, 2006.
  19. Pain et al., 2011.
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Авторы и редакторы Википедии

Коростели: Brief Summary ( Russian )

provided by wikipedia русскую Википедию

Коростели (лат. Crex) — род птиц из семейства пастушковых. В настоящее время включает в себя два вида: коростеля и африканского коростеля. Первый из этих двух видов гнездится в Евразии и зимует в Юго-Восточной Африке, второй распространён исключительно на африканском континенте к югу от Сахары.

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Авторы и редакторы Википедии