The endangered Malagasy sacred ibis (Threskiornis bernieri), is found in the Madagascar mangroves ecoregion as well as certain other western coastal Madagascar habitat and the Seychelles. These Madagascar mangroves shelter highly diverse mollusk and crustacean communities, while capturing sediment that threatens coral reefs and seagrass beds. Although up to nine mangrove tree species have been recorded, most of the Madagascar mangrove stands contain six species in four families: Rhizophoracae (Rhizopora mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Ceriops tagal), Avicenniaceae (Avicennia marina), Sonneratiaceae (Sonneratia alba) and Combretaceae (Lumnitzera racemosa).
Some ot the other notable avian associates of the Madagascar mangroves are: the Madagascar Heron (Ardea humbloti, VU), Madagascar Teal (Anas bernieri, EN), Madagascar plover (Charadrius thoracicus, VU), and Madagascar fish eagle (Haliaeetus vociferoides, CR). The Malagasy kingfisher (Alcedo vintsioides) is also thought to occur in these mangroves. This habitat is important for migratory bird species, such as Common ringed plover (Charadrius hiaticula), Crab plover (Dromas ardeola), Gray plover (Charadrius squatarola), African spoonbill (Platalea alba) and Great White Egret (Egretta alba).
A number of mammalian taxa are found in the ecoregion, chiefly lemurs, tenrecs and bats. The sole terrestrial apex mammalian predator of the ecoregion is the Malagasy civet (Fossa fossana), a Madagascar endemic.
Tenrecs occurring in the ecoregion are: Large-eared tenrec (Geogale aurita), the tiniest extant tenrec; Greater hedgehog tenrec found in the Madagascar mangroves, an insectivorous mammal; Lesser hedgehog tenrec (Echinops telfairi); and Tailless tenrec (Tenrec ecaudatus). Each of these tenrecs is endemic to Madagascar, save for the Tailless tenrec, which is also found on Comoros and a few other islands in the region.
Primates found in the Madagascar consist of several lemur species: the Endangered Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi), endemic to western and southwestern Madagascar; the Vulnerable Black lemur (Eulemur macaco); the Vulnerable Red-fronted lemur (Eulemur rufus); the Vulnerable Sambirano Bamboo Lemur (Hapalemur occidentalis); the Endangered Coquerel's Mouse-lemur (Microcebus coquereli), a Madagascar endemic; the Vulnerable Decken's sifaka (Propithecus deckenii), a western Madagascar endemic; Sambirano Woolly Lemur (Avahi unicolor), a northwestern Madagascar endemic; Pale-forked crown lemur (Phaner pallescens), endemic to western Madagascar; Fat-tailed dwarf lemur (Cheirogaleus medius); and Grey mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus).
Bats occurring here are the Near Threatened Malagasy rousette (Rousettus madagascariensis), a cave rooster capable of navigating the airspace of rather dense intact forest; Vulnerable Madagascan fruit bat (Eidolon dupreanum); Near Threatened Commerson's roundleaf bat (Hipposideros commersonii); Near threatened long-fingered bat (Miniopterus schreibersi); Rufous trident bat (Triaenops rufus); Malagasy giant mastiff bat (Otomops madagascariensis), a Madagascar endemic; Malagasy White-bellied Free-tailed Bat (Mops leucostigma), endemic to Madagascar and the Comoros islands of Anjouan and Moheli; Malagasy slit-faced bat (Nycteris madagascariensis), a narrow endemic to the Irodo River Valley in northern Madagascar; Mauritian tomb bat (Taphozous mauritianus); Trouessart's trident bat (Triaenops furculus), endemic to Madagascar and the outer Seychelles atolls; Manavi Long-fingered Bat (Miniopterus manavi), endemic to Madagascar and Comoros; Grandidier's Free-tailed Bat (Chaerephon leucogaster); Robust yellow bat (Scotophilus robustus); Malagasy mouse-eared bat (Suncus madagascariensis); and Malagasy serotine (Neoromicia matroka). Flying foxes found in the ecoregion are: Madagascan flying fox (Pteropus rufus), an important seed disperser who mates whilst hanging upside down.
Other mammals found in the ecoregion are the Madagascan pygmy shrew (Suncus madagascariensis); The only Rodentia member in the ecoregion is the Dormouse tufted-tailed rat (Eliurus myoxinus).
There are a limited number of reptilian taxa found in the Madagascar mangroves: Snake-eyed skink (Cryptoblepharus boutonii); and aquatic apex predator Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus). Some sea turtles, primarily green turtle (Chelonia mydas, EN) and Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata, CR), nest along the western coast within the Madagascar mangroves. The declining species Dugong (Dugong dugong, VU) is also found in the mangroves.
There is only one amphibian species present in the Madagascar mangroves: Mascarene ridged frog (Ptychadena mascareniensis).
There is particularly high diversity among the fish populations in the Madagascar mangroves,the families of which include: Mugelidae, Serranidae, Carangidae, Gerridae, Hemiramphidae, Plectrorhynchidae and Elopidae. The neighboring coral reefs that are associated with the mangroves have also been noted for extremely high fish diversity.
The Malagasy sacred ibis (Threskiornis bernieri) is a relatively large, heavily built ibis endemic to the west coast of Madagascar, and Aldabra on the Seychelles.
The Malagasy sacred ibis was formerly considered a subspecies of the African sacred ibis.[2][3] It is now however classified as a separate species from the African sacred ibis due to considerable differences observed in the former’s ecology and morphology.[4][5] It is hypothesized that the Malagasy sacred ibis evolved from the African sacred ibis when the latter supposedly spread to and colonized Madagascar from mainland Africa.[2]
There are two different subspecies of the Malagasy sacred ibis: Threskiornis bernieri bernieri (Bonaparte, 1855) on Madagascar, and T.b. abbotti (Ridgway, 1893) on Aldabra in the Seychelles.[6]
The adult stands 65–89 cm tall,[1] with a wingspan of 112–124 cm.[7] The plumage is predominantly white, often with brownish-yellow staining. There are also black ornamental plumes on the back with a blue or green gloss formed from the lower scapulars and tertials, which are most prominent in the breeding season.[7] The bill, head, neck and legs are black.
This ibis is morphologically similar to the African sacred ibis, but is slightly smaller,[3] more slender-billed, lacks the black trailing edge to the wings, has bluish-slate tertials (purplish-slate in the African sacred ibis), differently structured ornamental neck sacs, less developed ornamental plumes and a different display.[6][3][5][8] Unlike the African sacred ibis, there is also little or no black on the wing tips and duller display plumes from the innermost secondaries.[2]
Both the bernieri and abbotti race have a light blue or white iris, both of which differ markedly from the brown iris of the African sacred ibis.[3] The abbotti race also has a black wing stripe.[3] Although this ibis is unlikely to be confused with other species in the field, it may sometimes be mistaken for the African sacred ibis which may occasionally visit Madagascar as a vagrant.[7]
The juvenile appears similar to the adult, but the head and neck are feathered black with white streaks, the ornamental plumes on the back are absent, and there may be some black on the wing tips.[7]
It is generally non-vocal, but the voice is probably similar to that of the African Sacred Ibis.[6]
Apart from its occurrence on Aldabra, the Malagasy sacred ibis is sparsely distributed along and restricted to the west coast of Madagascar,[5] especially between Port-Berge and Moromoe.[3] Although uncommon, some high densities of resident breeding populations have been observed in mangroves and estuaries near Soalala and Sahamalaza Bay and Baie de Baly; the region encompassed between these locations appears to be a species’ stronghold.[5]
The Malagasy sacred ibis is generally restricted to coastal mudflats, estuaries, mangrove swamps and shallow brackish coastal lakes; but is occasionally found on freshwater wetlands.[7][1] It preferentially frequents wide, open pools without surrounding vegetation; as well as sand bars and sandy beaches for general resting places.[9] In one survey, over 80% of individuals recorded were found within 2 km of the coastline.[5] Its habitat is situated 0-150m above sea level.[7][1] This species is considered more ecologically restricted than its mainland African counterpart, which is found in a wider range of habitats at a wider range of altitudes.[1]
The Malagasy sacred ibis feeds on crustaceans, diverse invertebrates, vegetable refuse[7] and more occasionally takes frogs, reptiles and young birds.[10] It forages mainly on mud in tidal areas,[5] thrusting its bill into the mud up to the eyes.[9] The abbotti race on the Seychelles feeds in coral pools and along lagoon shores (King, 1981 in Hancock). Feeding is often solitary, although some individuals have been observed foraging in pairs or threes.[5]
Egg-laying occurs at the beginning of the wet season in November and December.[9][6] The clutch size is usually 2 eggs.[6] Average egg measurements for T.a. abbotti have been reported as 59.5mm long and 41.3mm broad and weighing 55g.[11]
This ibis nests colonially, sometimes with mixed heron species such as the Humblot's heron [12] or egret species such as cattle egret and dimorphic egret.[5] The nest lies 2-3m above the surface of the water in forks of Avicennia and Rhizophora trees and largely comprises twigs, some of which are still living with leaves attached.[9] The nest is structurally sturdy and measures 450-500mm across and 250mm deep.[9] Other nests have been reported to be smaller, measuring approximately 250mm across.[5]
The Madagascan population has been markedly declining mainly through unsustainable harvesting of eggs, nest site disturbance and wetland habitat degradation.[6] Human interference and habitat loss also pose threats to the abbotti race.[13] Because nesting individuals are apparently fearless of humans, this species is an easy target for hunters.[5] Habitat loss and degradation pose another serious threat to the population. Important areas of this species’ habitat are threatened with pollution, sedimentation and encroachment of alluvial sands. Such sedimentation is caused by soil erosion from slash and burn cultivation (Birdlife International, 2013). Its mangrove habitat is also threatened with destruction for charcoal production.[14] This ibis may further be in competition for food with egret species such as the dimorphic egret.[1]
Because this ibis has historically been widely considered conspecific with the African sacred ibis, no early separate conservation measures have been proposed for the former.[5] Coastal sites are generally poorly protected in western Madagascar, although new wetland conservation initiatives now include the species as a conservation target.[1] On the Seychelles, the Aldabra atoll has been designated a Special Reserve.[1]
This species has been popularly hunted and its eggs harvested for food by local villagers, and young nestlings have even been raised to serve as food for seasonal events.[5] This ibis is easily captured because of its passiveness and incautiousness when feeding and nesting.[5]
Two Malagasy sacred ibis individuals were once received by London Zoo from the Societe d’Acclimatation, Paris, in 1870.[15]
The Madagascan population size has been estimated at 1500-2000 mature individuals,[6][5] and the population of the abbotti race on Aldabra has been estimated at 300-750 individuals, with a total estimated population of 2300-3250 individuals.[1] Its estimated global range is 25500 km2.[6] The species global’ population is estimated to have declined by over 20% over the last 16 years, most of which has probably occurred in recent decades.[1] The Malagasy sacred ibis has therefore been classified as Endangered by the IUCN and is generally considered rare throughout its range.[1] Historical accounts suggest that it was once commoner.[9]
The Malagasy sacred ibis (Threskiornis bernieri) is a relatively large, heavily built ibis endemic to the west coast of Madagascar, and Aldabra on the Seychelles.
